Being and Becoming Human: An Introduction to Anthropology

Preface 
Acknowledgments 
About the Author 

Chapter 1 What is Anthropology? 
Defining Anthropology and What Anthropologists Study 
The Culture Concept: What Is Culture? 
The Four “Fields” of Anthropology 
          Cultural Anthropology 
          Biological Anthropology 
          Archaeology 
          Linguistics 
Origins and Foundations of Anthropological Inquiry 
          Travel Journals and Settler Diaries 
          Enlightenment Social Philosophers: Why Is Culture and Society Necessary? 
          Darwinian Evolution and Cultural Evolutionism as Social Theory 
Considering and Respecting Diversity: Boas, Historical Particularism, and Cultural Relativity 
Chapter Summary 
Works Cited 

Chapter 2 Biological Anthropology: Historical, Scientific, and Cultural Ideas about Race, Ethnicity, Sex, and Gender 
Introduction 
The Race Concept in Early Anthropology 
          Scientific Racism and Race Science 
          What Were the Ideas of “Race Science” or “Scientific Racism”? 
          Samuel Morton and Anthropometry 
          Francis Galton, Anthropometry, and Eugenics 
          Aleš Hrdlicka: Biological Anthropology, Anthropometry, and Eugenics 
          The Legacy of Race Science and Scientific Racism 
Franz Boas: Race as Environmental Adaptation 
          Boas: Race Is Not Biologically Determined 
          Boas: Intellect, Creativity, and Morality Are Not Biologically Determined 
Boas Versus Hrdlicka on Race 
          Boas’s Legacy: Differences in Body Type and Physical Characteristics 
          Boas, Racialism, and Ethnic Superiority 
          Legacy of Scientific Racism and Racialism 
Ethnicity: Cultural Differences as the Basis for Human Variation 
          Foodways as Ethnic Boundaries 
          Language and Music as Ethnic Boundaries 
The Impact of the Concept of Ethnicity 
Sex and Gender: Biological Reality or Social Construct? 
          Biological Sex and Chromosomal Variations 
          Biological Sex and Atypical Gonad Development 
          Biological Sex and Hormonal Production or Sensitivity 
          How Common Is Intersex? 
Gender Identity: Are There Only Two Genders? 
What Does Presentation Mean? Gender and Queer Theory in Anthropology 
          Gender = Woman? 
          Enter Queer Theory 
          Sexual Attraction (Sexual Preference) 
          Biology and Sexual Preference 
          Biological Sex, Gender Identity, and Sexual Preference 
Cultural Norms and Values: Making LGBTQIA+ People 
          LGBTQIA+ People in the United States Today 
Why Discuss the History of Concepts like Race, Ethnicity, and Gender Identity? 
“Folk Knowledge” and Human Rights 
Chapter Summary 
Works Cited 

Chapter 3 Biological Anthropology: Studying Primate Behavior 
Introduction 
The Hypotheses for Primate Origins 
          Arboreal Hypothesis 
          Visual Predation Hypothesis 
          Angiosperm Radiation Hypothesis 
Primate Evolutionary Tree 
Biogeography of the Living Primates 
General Primate Characteristics (Adaptations) 
Taxonomic Classification 
          Prosimians (Sense of Smell Is Enhanced) 
          Anthropoidea [Sense of Vision Is Enhanced] 
Chapter Summary 
Works Cited 

Chapter 4 Biological Anthropology and Human Evolution: The Human Family Tree 
Introduction 
Primate Evolution 
          First Primates 
Bipedalism 
Why Did Hominins Become Bipedal? 
General Patterns in Hominin Evolution 
          First Hominins 
          Australopithecus: Lucy and Friends 
          Early Hominid Culture: The Lifeways of Australopithecines 
Human 
          Lumpers and Splitters 
          Homo habilis 
          Homo erectus 
          Homo heidelbergensis 
          Neanderthals 
          Denisovans 
          Homo Sapiens 
Interbreeding and the Genetic History of Modern Humans (Homo sapiens) 
          Neanderthal and Modern Human Interactions 
          Evidence of Interbreeding between Early Human Populations 
So Where did Modern Humans Come From? 
Other Interesting Early Human Species 
          Homo naledi 
          Homo floresiensis 
Conclusion 
Chapter Summary 
Works Cited 

Chapter 5 How Old is Humanity?: Dating Methods in Biological Anthropology and Archaeology 
Introduction 
What Is a Fossil? 
Relative Dating Versus Absolute Dating 
What Is Relative Dating? 
Absolute Dating 
          Dendrochronology 
          Radiometric Dating 
          Radiogenic Dating: Measuring Trapped Electrons 
Chapter Summary 
Works Cited 

Chapter 6 Archaeology: Scientific and Humanist Approaches to Studying the Past 
Introduction 
Relationship Between Agriculture and Civilization 
          Case Study: Abu Hureyra 
From Small Villages to City-States to Empires
          Where Did Leaders Come From? 
          The First Cities and City-States: Mesopotamia 
Collapse of States and Empires 
Commentary on the Relationship Between Climate Change and Civilization 
Scientific Versus Humanist Approach to Interpreting the Past 
          Social Identity: Archaeology of Gender and Social Status in the Viking World 
          Social Context of Women’s Status and Gender Roles in the Viking World 
          Oseberg Ship Burial: Gender Identity and Social Status 
          A Real Shield-Maiden: The Birka Warrior Burial 
          Gender, Sex, and Identity in the Viking World: What Do These Burials Mean? 
Commentary on Archaeologies of Identity 
Chapter Summary 
Works Cited 

Chapter 7 Cultural Anthropology: Definitions, Methods, and Debates 
Introduction 
Revisiting the Culture Concept 
Research Methods in Cultural Anthropology 
          Salvage Ethnography: Descriptive Research 
          Cultural Critique and Comparative Ethnography 
          Problem-Oriented Ethnography 
          Ethnography of the Globalized World: Survey Studies 
Revisiting Ethnocentrism and Cultural Relativism 
Debates About Human Rights and Cultural Relativism in Anthropology 
Why Human Rights Became an Anthropological Concern: Ethical Questions 
Decolonizing Anthropology: Reconciling Anthropological Research and Human Rights 
Chapter Summary 
Works Cited 

Chapter 8 Cultural Anthropology: Kinship, Marriage, and Family 
Introduction 
Descent 
          Bilateral Descent Groups 
          Unilateral Descent Groups 
Marriage 
          Seven Functions of Marriage 
          Cultural Definitions of Acceptable Marriage Partners 
Fictive Kinship 
Chapter Summary 
Works Cited 

Chapter 9 Cultural Anthropology: Economies, Subsistence, and Exchange 
Introduction 
Modes of Subsistence 
Types of Subsistence 
          Hunting and Gathering 
          Agriculture 
          Pastoralism 
Thinking about Economic Anthropology: The Formalist vs. Substantivist Debate 
Reciprocity 
          Generalized Reciprocity 
          Balanced Reciprocity 
          Negative Reciprocity 
Redistribution 
          Leveling Mechanisms 
Market Exchange 
Commodities 
          Commodity Fetishism 
          Money as Means of Market Exchange
Commodity Flows and Singularization 
The Paradox of Debt: Morality and Menace 
Chapter Summary 
Works Cited 

Chapter 10 Cultural Anthropology: Social Structure and Politics 
Introduction 
Social Structure: Egalitarian and Inegalitarian Societies 
          Egalitarian Society 
          Ranked Society 
          Stratified Society 
Social Class 
          Alienation 
Social Classes, Political Power, and Inequality in Marxist Thought 
Politics and Power 
          Types of Societies: Bands, Tribes, Chiefdoms, and States 
Social Power and State 
          Hegemony 
          Governmentality 
Connections Between Social Structure and Political Structure 
Chapter Summary 
Works Cited 

Chapter 11 Anthropological Linguistics: Biological, Archaeological, and Cultural Questions about Language 
Introduction 
Biological Anthropology and Linguistics 
          How Monkeys, Apes, and Humans Communicate 
Kinesics, Paralanguage, and Other Signals 
          Kinesics and Related Motions 
          Paralanguage 
          When Could Hominins Speak? 
Six Features of Language 
          Arbitrariness 
          Productivity 
          Displacement 
          Interchangeability 
          Cultural Transmission 
          Specialization 
          Structural Duality 
Producing Meaningful Messages with Sound: Structural Linguistics 
Linguistics and Archaeology 
          Historical Linguistics 
          Concepts of Historical Linguistics 
          Glottochronology 
          Deciphering Ancient Languages: Epigraphy 
Sociocultural Linguistics: Language, Worldview, and Social Structure 
          Ethnolinguistics 
          Sociolinguistics 
Conclusion 
Chapter Summary 
Works Cited 

Chapter 12 Cultural Anthropology: Globalization and Global Citizenship 
Introduction 
What is Colonialism and How has it Impacted Indigenous Cultures? 
How did Colonialism Lead to the Contemporary
World System? 
What is Globalization? 
How has Globalization Impacted Indigenous Peoples? 
How Have Indigenous Peoples Resisted Culture Change and Globalization? 
Immigration and Globalization 
Chapter Summary 
Works Cited 

Chapter 13 Applied Anthropology: Career Paths for Anthropologists 
Introduction 
Applied Cultural Anthropology 
          What Is Applied Anthropology? 
          What Roles Do Anthropologists Play in Planning Culture Change? 
Applied Anthropology and the Immigration Crisis in the United States 
Careers for Archaeologists 
          Cultural Resource Management 
          Consulting with Descendant Communities in CRM and Academic Archaeological Research 
          Jobs and Educational Requirements for a Career in CRM 
          Public Archaeology 
          Human Rights Archaeology 
Careers for Biological Anthropologists 
          Biological Anthropology and Archaeology: Human Rights 
          Bioarchaeology and Public Health 
          Biological Anthropology and Forensics 
Anthropologists as Researchers and Educators: Teaching in Colleges and Universities 
The Value of the Master’s and Doctorate Degrees: Finding a Program and Applying 
Conclusion 
Chapter Summary 
Works Cited