Communications Research
Edition: 2
Copyright: 2020
Edition: 2
Copyright: 2020
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About the Author
Chapter 1: Communication Research Defined
What Is Research?
Communication Research versus Traditional Research
Research Characteristics
Types of Research
Why Is Research Conducted?
Research Methods
Types of Research Methods and Research Example
Quantitative Research Methods
So What?
Glossary
References
Chapter 2: Research Questions, Objectives, and Hypotheses
Chapter Outline
Key Terms
Chapter Objectives
How Do You Design Good Quality Research through Appropriate Questions and Hypotheses?
What Are the Functions of Theory, Research Objectives, Research Questions, and Hypotheses?
What Are Research Objectives?
How Do You Ask Research Questions?
Types of Research Questions about Communication
Questions of Definition
Questions of Fact
What Are Research Hypotheses?
Null Hypotheses
Forms of Relationships in Hypotheses
Directional and Nondirectional Hypotheses
How Do You Set Up Good Research Questions?
Conceptual Definitions
Operational Definitions
What Are the Boundaries of Research Questions and Hypotheses?
How Is Metatheory Related to Research Questions and Hypotheses?
So What?
Glossary
References
Chapter 3: Understanding Communication Research Ethics
Chapter Outline
Key Terms
Chapter Objectives
Why Are Ethics Important?
How Do Ethics Influence Research?
Why Are Ethics Important in Research?
The Connection Between Communication Research and Ethics
The Tenets of the Belmont Report
Principal #1: Respect for Persons
Principal #2: Nonmaleficence and Beneficence
Principal #3: Justice
Conducting Communication Research
Promoting Ethical Conduct in Science
So What?
Glossary
References
Chapter 4: Understanding Variables
Chapter Outline
Key Terms
Chapter Objectives
What Is the Function of Variables in Communication Research?
What Is a Variable?
Revisiting Conceptual and Operational Definitions
Conceptual Definitions
Operational Definitions
Measured Operational Definitions
Experimental Operational Definitions
Operationalizing: Matching Your Variables to Your Study
Conceptual Fit
Measuring Variables
Self-Report
Social Desirability Bias in Self-Report Data
Other Report
Limitations in Other Reports
Observing Behavior
Hawthorne Effect Bias in Observing Behaviors
Triangulation
Measurement
Nominal Level Measurement
Ordinal Level Measurement
Interval Level Measurement
Likert Scale
Semantic Differential Scale
Ratio Level Measurement
Types of Variables
Independent Variables
Dependent Variables
Examples of Independent and Dependent Variables
Extraneous Variables
Confounding Variables
Mediating Variables
Moderating Variables
The Different Types of Relationships between Variables
Reversible and Irreversible Relationships
Deterministic and Stochastic Relationships
Sequential and Coextensive Relationships
Sufficient and Contingent Relationships
Necessary and Substitutable Relationships
The Dimensions of Variables
Unidimensional Concepts
Multidimensional Concepts
So What?
Glossary
References
Chapter 5: Understanding Sampling
Chapter Outline
Key Terms
Chapter Objectives
How Important Is Sampling?
Sampling Theory
Generalizability and Representation
Sampling Frame
Unit of Analysis or Sampling Units
Sampling in Quantitative Research
Sampling Methods
Random Sampling
Simple Random Sample
Systematic Random Sample
Stratified Sample
Proportional Stratified Sample
Cluster Sampling
Nonrandom Sampling
Convenience Sample
Volunteer Sample
Snowball Sampling
Network Sampling
Advantages And Disadvantages
Response Rate and Refusal Rate
Sample Size and Power
Sampling in Qualitative Research
Sampling Methods
Purposive Sampling
Quota Sampling
Maximum Variation Sampling
Theoretical Construct Sampling
Typical and Extreme Instance Sampling
Sample Size and Data Saturation
So What?
Glossary
References
Chapter 6: Survey Research
Chapter Outline
Key Terms
Chapter Objectives
Why Surveys?
Survey Research
Applications of Survey Research
Survey Research Measuring Attitudes
Survey Research Measuring Retrospective Behaviors
Political Polls
Evaluation Research
Market Research
Design Concerns
Sampling
Cross-Sectional Design
Longitudinal Design
Trend Study
Cohort Study
Panel Study
Measurement Techniques
Constructing a Survey Questionnaire
Writing Survey Questions
Strategies for Questions
Types of Questions
Structure and Arrangement of Questions
How to Choose the Right Format
Survey Administration
Researcher-Administered
Self-Administered
Interviews
So What?
Glossary
References
Chapter 7: Experiments
Chapter Outline
Key Terms
Chapter Objectives
What Is an Experiment?
Independent and Dependent Variables
What Are Independent Variables?
What Are Dependent Variables?
Good Questions for Experiments
Understanding Experimental Notation and Language
Observation
Induction
Random Assignment
Terminology
Designs and Validity
Preexperimental Designs
One Shot Case Study Design
One Group Pretest Posttest Design
Static Group Comparison Design
Quasi-Experimental Designs
Time-Series Design
Nonequivalent Control Group Design
Multiple Time-Series Design
True Experimental Designs
Pretest Posttest Control Group Design
Posttest-Only Control Group Design
Solomon Four-Group Design
Factorial Design
Field and Natural Experiments
So What?
Glossary
References
Chapter 8: Qualitative Research and Case Studies
Chapter Outline
Key Terms
Chapter Objectives
When Should You Use a Case Study Approach?
What Is a Case?
Limiting Your Case Study
Determining the Type of Case Study
Yin’s Case Study Ideas
Stake’s Case Study Ideas
Single or Multiple Case Study Designs:
A Single Case Study
Multiple Case Studies
Propositions
Propositions versus Issues
Types of Decisions
Data Management
Analysis
Reporting a Case Study
Strategies for Achieving Trustworthiness in Case Study Research
So What?
Glossary
References
Chapter 9: Putting It All Together
Chapter Outline
Key Terms
Chapter Objectives
Developing the Basics of Your Communication Research Toolkit
Research Theory and Logic
Research Objectives and the Research Question
Research Hypothesis
Determining Your Variables
Relationships Between Variables
Research Techniques: Sampling
Establishing a Sampling Framework
Research Techniques: Surveys
Benefits of Survey Research
Designing Your Survey
Specifics of Longitudinal Design
Building a Survey Questionnaire
Arranging the Survey Questions
Administering a Research Survey
Research Technique: Experiments
Building Blocks of an Experiment
Important Terms in Experiment Design
Designing Your Experiment
Research Techniques: Field Work
Research Techniques: Focus Groups
Candidate Selection
Budgets
Timelines
Research Study Checklist
So What?
Glossary
Chapter 10: Applying Your Survey Research
Chapter Outline
Key Terms
Chapter Objectives
Importance of Communicating Your Research Findings
Application of Research Findings
What Effective Research Communication Involves
Understanding your audience
Defining the Target Audience
Consider the Breadth of Your Target Research Audience
Types of Research Users
Understanding Your Research Audience’s Wants and Needs
Learning More About Your Target Research Audience
Developing Your Research Messages
Clarifying Your Research Findings
Identifying the Implications of Your Study
Imagining the “What If” of Your Research
Out-of-the-Box Applications of Your Work
Writing Your Key Messages
Broadcasting Your Content
Which Medium? Think About the Consumption Habits of Your Target Market
So What?
Glossary
References
Chapter 11: Case Studies in Communication Research
Chapter Outline
Chapter Objectives
University of Minnesota: “The Other Hangover”
Domino’s Social Media Crisis Communication
A Whale of a Problem: A Strategic Communication Analysis of SeaWorld Entertainment’s Multiyear Blackfish Crisis
Connecticut Light & Power’s (CL&P) Crisis Communication Response
The Jersey Shore and Superstorm Sandy
Deflated: The Strategic Impact of the “Deflategate” Scandal on the NFL and Its Golden Boy
References
Chapter 12: Outline
Kathryn Lancioni is an internationally recognized expert in the field of public relations. With more than 25 years of experience in the industry, Ms. Lancioni has a unique appreciation and understanding of its dynamic landscape working as a journalist, public relations executive, communications strategist and college professor.
Over the past several decades, Ms. Lancioni has helped dozens of domestic and multinational companies conquer their market research, branding, and public relations and investor relations challenges. She has worked with media at the highest levels, taken companies public on the New York Stock Exchange, directed global communications programs, counseled clients through monumental crises, and relaunched lagging brands.
Starting with her earliest days in the field, Ms. Lancioni has been continually challenged to help companies discover their competitive edge. She has empowered start-ups to realize unexpected target markets, developed insightful growth-minded strategies for beleaguered brands, and constructed out-of-the box communication programs for global powerhouses.
From the mid-1990s to early 2000s, Ms. Lancioni had the opportunity to work for some of the world’s leading PR agencies, including Edelman, Ogilvy, and Weber-Shandwick. After nearly on the agency side, she moved into the corporate arena, advising both emerging and established organizations. From 2001 to 2006, she led the global communications and investor relations program of PanAmSat. In 2006, she launched Communication Insights, a communications consultancy providing strategic guidance and support to a variety of domestic and global organizations.
Alongside her industry work, Ms. Lancioni has been teaching the nuances of public relations to students in colleges and universities across the United States. She has served on the faculty of Farleigh Dickinson University, Montclair State University, Rutgers University, Seton Hall University, St. John Fisher College, and William Paterson University. She has guest lectured at Columbia Business School, Cornell University, and Rutgers University, and been the featured speaker at several national conferences. Her articles about the communications fi eld have been published in several national and regional magazines. She serves on the Advisory Council of Entrepreneurship at Cornell University and on the Advisory Board of the Market Research Center in the Stillman School of Business of Seton Hall University.
Ms. Lancioni is the author of three books: Communication Research, Public Relations: The Changing Global Landscape and The Practice of Public Relations, all published by Kendall Hunt.
She earned a bachelor’s of science in communications from Cornell University and a master’s of science in journalism from the Graduate School of Journalism of Columbia University.
About the Author
Chapter 1: Communication Research Defined
What Is Research?
Communication Research versus Traditional Research
Research Characteristics
Types of Research
Why Is Research Conducted?
Research Methods
Types of Research Methods and Research Example
Quantitative Research Methods
So What?
Glossary
References
Chapter 2: Research Questions, Objectives, and Hypotheses
Chapter Outline
Key Terms
Chapter Objectives
How Do You Design Good Quality Research through Appropriate Questions and Hypotheses?
What Are the Functions of Theory, Research Objectives, Research Questions, and Hypotheses?
What Are Research Objectives?
How Do You Ask Research Questions?
Types of Research Questions about Communication
Questions of Definition
Questions of Fact
What Are Research Hypotheses?
Null Hypotheses
Forms of Relationships in Hypotheses
Directional and Nondirectional Hypotheses
How Do You Set Up Good Research Questions?
Conceptual Definitions
Operational Definitions
What Are the Boundaries of Research Questions and Hypotheses?
How Is Metatheory Related to Research Questions and Hypotheses?
So What?
Glossary
References
Chapter 3: Understanding Communication Research Ethics
Chapter Outline
Key Terms
Chapter Objectives
Why Are Ethics Important?
How Do Ethics Influence Research?
Why Are Ethics Important in Research?
The Connection Between Communication Research and Ethics
The Tenets of the Belmont Report
Principal #1: Respect for Persons
Principal #2: Nonmaleficence and Beneficence
Principal #3: Justice
Conducting Communication Research
Promoting Ethical Conduct in Science
So What?
Glossary
References
Chapter 4: Understanding Variables
Chapter Outline
Key Terms
Chapter Objectives
What Is the Function of Variables in Communication Research?
What Is a Variable?
Revisiting Conceptual and Operational Definitions
Conceptual Definitions
Operational Definitions
Measured Operational Definitions
Experimental Operational Definitions
Operationalizing: Matching Your Variables to Your Study
Conceptual Fit
Measuring Variables
Self-Report
Social Desirability Bias in Self-Report Data
Other Report
Limitations in Other Reports
Observing Behavior
Hawthorne Effect Bias in Observing Behaviors
Triangulation
Measurement
Nominal Level Measurement
Ordinal Level Measurement
Interval Level Measurement
Likert Scale
Semantic Differential Scale
Ratio Level Measurement
Types of Variables
Independent Variables
Dependent Variables
Examples of Independent and Dependent Variables
Extraneous Variables
Confounding Variables
Mediating Variables
Moderating Variables
The Different Types of Relationships between Variables
Reversible and Irreversible Relationships
Deterministic and Stochastic Relationships
Sequential and Coextensive Relationships
Sufficient and Contingent Relationships
Necessary and Substitutable Relationships
The Dimensions of Variables
Unidimensional Concepts
Multidimensional Concepts
So What?
Glossary
References
Chapter 5: Understanding Sampling
Chapter Outline
Key Terms
Chapter Objectives
How Important Is Sampling?
Sampling Theory
Generalizability and Representation
Sampling Frame
Unit of Analysis or Sampling Units
Sampling in Quantitative Research
Sampling Methods
Random Sampling
Simple Random Sample
Systematic Random Sample
Stratified Sample
Proportional Stratified Sample
Cluster Sampling
Nonrandom Sampling
Convenience Sample
Volunteer Sample
Snowball Sampling
Network Sampling
Advantages And Disadvantages
Response Rate and Refusal Rate
Sample Size and Power
Sampling in Qualitative Research
Sampling Methods
Purposive Sampling
Quota Sampling
Maximum Variation Sampling
Theoretical Construct Sampling
Typical and Extreme Instance Sampling
Sample Size and Data Saturation
So What?
Glossary
References
Chapter 6: Survey Research
Chapter Outline
Key Terms
Chapter Objectives
Why Surveys?
Survey Research
Applications of Survey Research
Survey Research Measuring Attitudes
Survey Research Measuring Retrospective Behaviors
Political Polls
Evaluation Research
Market Research
Design Concerns
Sampling
Cross-Sectional Design
Longitudinal Design
Trend Study
Cohort Study
Panel Study
Measurement Techniques
Constructing a Survey Questionnaire
Writing Survey Questions
Strategies for Questions
Types of Questions
Structure and Arrangement of Questions
How to Choose the Right Format
Survey Administration
Researcher-Administered
Self-Administered
Interviews
So What?
Glossary
References
Chapter 7: Experiments
Chapter Outline
Key Terms
Chapter Objectives
What Is an Experiment?
Independent and Dependent Variables
What Are Independent Variables?
What Are Dependent Variables?
Good Questions for Experiments
Understanding Experimental Notation and Language
Observation
Induction
Random Assignment
Terminology
Designs and Validity
Preexperimental Designs
One Shot Case Study Design
One Group Pretest Posttest Design
Static Group Comparison Design
Quasi-Experimental Designs
Time-Series Design
Nonequivalent Control Group Design
Multiple Time-Series Design
True Experimental Designs
Pretest Posttest Control Group Design
Posttest-Only Control Group Design
Solomon Four-Group Design
Factorial Design
Field and Natural Experiments
So What?
Glossary
References
Chapter 8: Qualitative Research and Case Studies
Chapter Outline
Key Terms
Chapter Objectives
When Should You Use a Case Study Approach?
What Is a Case?
Limiting Your Case Study
Determining the Type of Case Study
Yin’s Case Study Ideas
Stake’s Case Study Ideas
Single or Multiple Case Study Designs:
A Single Case Study
Multiple Case Studies
Propositions
Propositions versus Issues
Types of Decisions
Data Management
Analysis
Reporting a Case Study
Strategies for Achieving Trustworthiness in Case Study Research
So What?
Glossary
References
Chapter 9: Putting It All Together
Chapter Outline
Key Terms
Chapter Objectives
Developing the Basics of Your Communication Research Toolkit
Research Theory and Logic
Research Objectives and the Research Question
Research Hypothesis
Determining Your Variables
Relationships Between Variables
Research Techniques: Sampling
Establishing a Sampling Framework
Research Techniques: Surveys
Benefits of Survey Research
Designing Your Survey
Specifics of Longitudinal Design
Building a Survey Questionnaire
Arranging the Survey Questions
Administering a Research Survey
Research Technique: Experiments
Building Blocks of an Experiment
Important Terms in Experiment Design
Designing Your Experiment
Research Techniques: Field Work
Research Techniques: Focus Groups
Candidate Selection
Budgets
Timelines
Research Study Checklist
So What?
Glossary
Chapter 10: Applying Your Survey Research
Chapter Outline
Key Terms
Chapter Objectives
Importance of Communicating Your Research Findings
Application of Research Findings
What Effective Research Communication Involves
Understanding your audience
Defining the Target Audience
Consider the Breadth of Your Target Research Audience
Types of Research Users
Understanding Your Research Audience’s Wants and Needs
Learning More About Your Target Research Audience
Developing Your Research Messages
Clarifying Your Research Findings
Identifying the Implications of Your Study
Imagining the “What If” of Your Research
Out-of-the-Box Applications of Your Work
Writing Your Key Messages
Broadcasting Your Content
Which Medium? Think About the Consumption Habits of Your Target Market
So What?
Glossary
References
Chapter 11: Case Studies in Communication Research
Chapter Outline
Chapter Objectives
University of Minnesota: “The Other Hangover”
Domino’s Social Media Crisis Communication
A Whale of a Problem: A Strategic Communication Analysis of SeaWorld Entertainment’s Multiyear Blackfish Crisis
Connecticut Light & Power’s (CL&P) Crisis Communication Response
The Jersey Shore and Superstorm Sandy
Deflated: The Strategic Impact of the “Deflategate” Scandal on the NFL and Its Golden Boy
References
Chapter 12: Outline
Kathryn Lancioni is an internationally recognized expert in the field of public relations. With more than 25 years of experience in the industry, Ms. Lancioni has a unique appreciation and understanding of its dynamic landscape working as a journalist, public relations executive, communications strategist and college professor.
Over the past several decades, Ms. Lancioni has helped dozens of domestic and multinational companies conquer their market research, branding, and public relations and investor relations challenges. She has worked with media at the highest levels, taken companies public on the New York Stock Exchange, directed global communications programs, counseled clients through monumental crises, and relaunched lagging brands.
Starting with her earliest days in the field, Ms. Lancioni has been continually challenged to help companies discover their competitive edge. She has empowered start-ups to realize unexpected target markets, developed insightful growth-minded strategies for beleaguered brands, and constructed out-of-the box communication programs for global powerhouses.
From the mid-1990s to early 2000s, Ms. Lancioni had the opportunity to work for some of the world’s leading PR agencies, including Edelman, Ogilvy, and Weber-Shandwick. After nearly on the agency side, she moved into the corporate arena, advising both emerging and established organizations. From 2001 to 2006, she led the global communications and investor relations program of PanAmSat. In 2006, she launched Communication Insights, a communications consultancy providing strategic guidance and support to a variety of domestic and global organizations.
Alongside her industry work, Ms. Lancioni has been teaching the nuances of public relations to students in colleges and universities across the United States. She has served on the faculty of Farleigh Dickinson University, Montclair State University, Rutgers University, Seton Hall University, St. John Fisher College, and William Paterson University. She has guest lectured at Columbia Business School, Cornell University, and Rutgers University, and been the featured speaker at several national conferences. Her articles about the communications fi eld have been published in several national and regional magazines. She serves on the Advisory Council of Entrepreneurship at Cornell University and on the Advisory Board of the Market Research Center in the Stillman School of Business of Seton Hall University.
Ms. Lancioni is the author of three books: Communication Research, Public Relations: The Changing Global Landscape and The Practice of Public Relations, all published by Kendall Hunt.
She earned a bachelor’s of science in communications from Cornell University and a master’s of science in journalism from the Graduate School of Journalism of Columbia University.