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Fundamentals of Philosophy: Being, Knowing, Doing

Fundamentals of Philosophy: Being, Knowing, Doing

Author(s): Stephen Orr

Edition: 1

Copyright: 2022

Edition: 1

Copyright: 2022

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Fundamentals of Philosophy provides a unique approach to the study of philosophy. Written in an approachable style, the text motivates students to learn complex philosophical themes without dry prose. Significant philosophical texts are interspersed with colorful commentary and context, engaging students’ interest and desire to learn more. Students will appreciate the interesting and comical examples, and will be ready to discuss the concepts as they relate to their own lives. While philosophy is often taught as the practice of critical thinking, Fundamentals of Philosophy focuses on the ‘questioning’ aspect of this enterprise. Students are encouraged time and again not only to seek the right answer, but also to ask the right questions.

The text includes a wide range of philosophical readings and engages with opposing viewpoints. As reading progresses, students are introduced to more specialized concepts in philosophy, including existentialism, the problem of artificial intelligence, and virtue ethics. Each chapter contains study and essay questions which can be used for review, or to develop further discussion in class. Fundamentals of Philosophy is designed for classroom or independent use, and is an effective tool for online, in person, or correspondence courses.

Major terms are highlighted throughout the text, and included in a glossary. There is also an appendix dedicated to writing critical philosophical essays, with a step-by-step guide to creating strong arguments. The included KHQ access allows students to test their understanding of philosophical concepts through short chapter based quizzes.

Part I Introduction
1. Introduction to Philosophy
1.1 What is philosophy?
1.11 Subdisciplines of philosophy
1.12 How to Approach the Subject
1.13 What is the Purpose of Philosophy?
1.14 The Value of Philosophy
1.2 Socrates and the Good Life
1.3 Reading Philosophy

2. Logic and Philosophy
2.1 Arguments
2.11 Propositions
2.12 Deductive Arguments
2.13 Inductive Arguments
2.2 Informal Fallacies
2.3 Analogical Reasoning

Part II Being
What is Metaphysics?
3. Classical Ontology
3.1 Plato (428/427 BCE - 348/347 BCE)
3.11 Theory of Forms
3.12 The Divided Line
3.13 The Divided Line Illustrated
3.14 An Analysis of the Intelligible Realm
3.15 Interpreting the Divided Line: The Allegory of the Cave
3.16 Proof and Evidence in Philosophy
3.2 Aristotle (384 BCE - 322 BCE)
3.21 Aristotle’s critique of Plato
3.22 Aristotle on ‘Substance’
3.23 The Four Causes (Explanations)
3.24 Form and Matter (Hylomorphism)

4. Modern Ontology
4.1 Philosophy and the New Science
4.2 Descartes (1596 - 1650)
4.21 Substance Dualism
4.22 Knowledge of Corporeal and Thinking Things
4.23 Knowledge of God (Primary Substance)
4.24 The Dualist’s Dilemma
4.25 How Many Substances?
4.3 Spinoza (1632-1677)
4.31 Substance monism
4.32 Three Outcomes of Spinoza’s Cosmology
4.4 Leibniz (1646 - 1716)
4.41 Leibniz on Substance
4.42 The Monads
4.43 The Pre-established Harmony of Nature
4.44 The Dog in the Chicken Coop
4.45 The Principle of Sufficient Reason
4.5 Philosophical Baggage

5. The Problem of Minds
5.1 Cartesian Dualism
5.11 Criticism of Cartesian Dualism
5.12 The View from Spinoza
5.2 Identity Theory
5.21 Objections to Identity Theory
5.3 Functionalism
5.31 Objections to Functionalism
5.32 The Possibility of Artificial Intelligence
5.4 The Problem of Artificial Intelligence
5.41 Common Objections
5.42 What is thinking?
5.43 Responding to the Objections
5.44 Computability and Connectionism
5.45 Questions without Answers

6. Free Will
6.1 The Problem of Free Will
6.11 The Issues Involved
6.12 Division of the Philosophical Positions
6.2 Determinism
6.21 Hard Determinism
6.3 Indeterminism
6.31 Alternative Futures
6.32 Libertarianism
6.4 Compatibilism
6.5 Existentialism and Radical Freedom
6.51 Sartre
6.52 Camus

Part III Knowing
7. Epistemology
7.1 What is Knowledge?
7.11 Forms and Kinds of Knowledge
7.12 Rationalism and Empiricism
7.2 Theories of Truth
7.21 Epistemic Relativism
7.3 René Descartes (1596-1650)
7.31 Descartes’ Radical Doubt
7.32 Descartes and the Evil Genius (cogito ergo sum)
7.4 John Locke (1632-1704)
7.41 Locke’s Theory of Ideas
7.42 Locke’s Arguments Against Innate Ideas
7.43 The Locke-Leibniz Debate
7.5 David Hume (1711-1776)
7.51 Everything From Experience
7.52 The Problem of Cause and Effect
7.53 The Problem of Induction
7.6 Immanuel Kant (1724 - 1804)
7.61 Answering Hume’s Problem
7.62 The Copernican Turn
7.63 Synthetic A Priori Judgments
7.64 Reading Kant
7.65 Pure and Empirical Knowledge
7.66 Analytic and Synthetic Judgments
7.67 Intuitions and Concepts
7.68 Conditions for All Possible Knowledge
7.69 Afterthoughts

Part IV Doing
8. Moral Philosophy
8.1 Morality and Ethics
8.11 Division of Moral Theories
8.12 Contemporary Moral Sentiment
8.13 The Good
8.14 Types of Values
8.2 Moral Feeling
8.3 Relativism
8.4 Ethical Egoism
8.5 Utilitarianism
8.51 Jeremy Bentham (1748-1832)
8.52 John Stuart Mill (1806-1873)
8.53 Problems with Utilitarianism
8.54 Act and Rule Utilitarianism
8.6 Deontology
8.61 Kant and the Groundwork
8.62 Hypothetical and Categorical Imperatives
8.63 The Categorical Imperative I: Formulation of Universal Law
8.64 Autonomy & Respect for the Moral Law
8.65 The Categorical Imperative II: Respect for Autonomy
8.66 Reconciling the Two Forms
8.67 Last Word on Consequences
8.7 Virtue I: Character and Habit
8.71 The Nicomachean Ethics
8.72 Aristotle’s ‘Good’
8.73 Eudaimonia and Rational Action
8.74 The Doctrine of the Mean
8.75 The Circularity of Virtue

9. Justice and Political Philosophy
9.1 Introduction
9.11 Socrates and the Nature of Justice
9.2 Theories of Political Philosophy
9.21 Philosophical Positions
9.22 The Range of Political Flavors
9.3 Justice and Freedom
9.31 Two Kinds of Justice
9.32 Two Kinds of Freedom
9.4 Classical Liberalism
9.41 Social Contract Theory
9.42 Natural Rights
9.43 The Civil State
9.44 The Declaration of Independence

Appendix I: Writing a Philosophical Essay
1. Essay Body
2. Essay Introduction
3. Essay Conclusion
4. Essay Structure: General Philosophical EssaY

Stephen Orr

Fundamentals of Philosophy provides a unique approach to the study of philosophy. Written in an approachable style, the text motivates students to learn complex philosophical themes without dry prose. Significant philosophical texts are interspersed with colorful commentary and context, engaging students’ interest and desire to learn more. Students will appreciate the interesting and comical examples, and will be ready to discuss the concepts as they relate to their own lives. While philosophy is often taught as the practice of critical thinking, Fundamentals of Philosophy focuses on the ‘questioning’ aspect of this enterprise. Students are encouraged time and again not only to seek the right answer, but also to ask the right questions.

The text includes a wide range of philosophical readings and engages with opposing viewpoints. As reading progresses, students are introduced to more specialized concepts in philosophy, including existentialism, the problem of artificial intelligence, and virtue ethics. Each chapter contains study and essay questions which can be used for review, or to develop further discussion in class. Fundamentals of Philosophy is designed for classroom or independent use, and is an effective tool for online, in person, or correspondence courses.

Major terms are highlighted throughout the text, and included in a glossary. There is also an appendix dedicated to writing critical philosophical essays, with a step-by-step guide to creating strong arguments. The included KHQ access allows students to test their understanding of philosophical concepts through short chapter based quizzes.

Part I Introduction
1. Introduction to Philosophy
1.1 What is philosophy?
1.11 Subdisciplines of philosophy
1.12 How to Approach the Subject
1.13 What is the Purpose of Philosophy?
1.14 The Value of Philosophy
1.2 Socrates and the Good Life
1.3 Reading Philosophy

2. Logic and Philosophy
2.1 Arguments
2.11 Propositions
2.12 Deductive Arguments
2.13 Inductive Arguments
2.2 Informal Fallacies
2.3 Analogical Reasoning

Part II Being
What is Metaphysics?
3. Classical Ontology
3.1 Plato (428/427 BCE - 348/347 BCE)
3.11 Theory of Forms
3.12 The Divided Line
3.13 The Divided Line Illustrated
3.14 An Analysis of the Intelligible Realm
3.15 Interpreting the Divided Line: The Allegory of the Cave
3.16 Proof and Evidence in Philosophy
3.2 Aristotle (384 BCE - 322 BCE)
3.21 Aristotle’s critique of Plato
3.22 Aristotle on ‘Substance’
3.23 The Four Causes (Explanations)
3.24 Form and Matter (Hylomorphism)

4. Modern Ontology
4.1 Philosophy and the New Science
4.2 Descartes (1596 - 1650)
4.21 Substance Dualism
4.22 Knowledge of Corporeal and Thinking Things
4.23 Knowledge of God (Primary Substance)
4.24 The Dualist’s Dilemma
4.25 How Many Substances?
4.3 Spinoza (1632-1677)
4.31 Substance monism
4.32 Three Outcomes of Spinoza’s Cosmology
4.4 Leibniz (1646 - 1716)
4.41 Leibniz on Substance
4.42 The Monads
4.43 The Pre-established Harmony of Nature
4.44 The Dog in the Chicken Coop
4.45 The Principle of Sufficient Reason
4.5 Philosophical Baggage

5. The Problem of Minds
5.1 Cartesian Dualism
5.11 Criticism of Cartesian Dualism
5.12 The View from Spinoza
5.2 Identity Theory
5.21 Objections to Identity Theory
5.3 Functionalism
5.31 Objections to Functionalism
5.32 The Possibility of Artificial Intelligence
5.4 The Problem of Artificial Intelligence
5.41 Common Objections
5.42 What is thinking?
5.43 Responding to the Objections
5.44 Computability and Connectionism
5.45 Questions without Answers

6. Free Will
6.1 The Problem of Free Will
6.11 The Issues Involved
6.12 Division of the Philosophical Positions
6.2 Determinism
6.21 Hard Determinism
6.3 Indeterminism
6.31 Alternative Futures
6.32 Libertarianism
6.4 Compatibilism
6.5 Existentialism and Radical Freedom
6.51 Sartre
6.52 Camus

Part III Knowing
7. Epistemology
7.1 What is Knowledge?
7.11 Forms and Kinds of Knowledge
7.12 Rationalism and Empiricism
7.2 Theories of Truth
7.21 Epistemic Relativism
7.3 René Descartes (1596-1650)
7.31 Descartes’ Radical Doubt
7.32 Descartes and the Evil Genius (cogito ergo sum)
7.4 John Locke (1632-1704)
7.41 Locke’s Theory of Ideas
7.42 Locke’s Arguments Against Innate Ideas
7.43 The Locke-Leibniz Debate
7.5 David Hume (1711-1776)
7.51 Everything From Experience
7.52 The Problem of Cause and Effect
7.53 The Problem of Induction
7.6 Immanuel Kant (1724 - 1804)
7.61 Answering Hume’s Problem
7.62 The Copernican Turn
7.63 Synthetic A Priori Judgments
7.64 Reading Kant
7.65 Pure and Empirical Knowledge
7.66 Analytic and Synthetic Judgments
7.67 Intuitions and Concepts
7.68 Conditions for All Possible Knowledge
7.69 Afterthoughts

Part IV Doing
8. Moral Philosophy
8.1 Morality and Ethics
8.11 Division of Moral Theories
8.12 Contemporary Moral Sentiment
8.13 The Good
8.14 Types of Values
8.2 Moral Feeling
8.3 Relativism
8.4 Ethical Egoism
8.5 Utilitarianism
8.51 Jeremy Bentham (1748-1832)
8.52 John Stuart Mill (1806-1873)
8.53 Problems with Utilitarianism
8.54 Act and Rule Utilitarianism
8.6 Deontology
8.61 Kant and the Groundwork
8.62 Hypothetical and Categorical Imperatives
8.63 The Categorical Imperative I: Formulation of Universal Law
8.64 Autonomy & Respect for the Moral Law
8.65 The Categorical Imperative II: Respect for Autonomy
8.66 Reconciling the Two Forms
8.67 Last Word on Consequences
8.7 Virtue I: Character and Habit
8.71 The Nicomachean Ethics
8.72 Aristotle’s ‘Good’
8.73 Eudaimonia and Rational Action
8.74 The Doctrine of the Mean
8.75 The Circularity of Virtue

9. Justice and Political Philosophy
9.1 Introduction
9.11 Socrates and the Nature of Justice
9.2 Theories of Political Philosophy
9.21 Philosophical Positions
9.22 The Range of Political Flavors
9.3 Justice and Freedom
9.31 Two Kinds of Justice
9.32 Two Kinds of Freedom
9.4 Classical Liberalism
9.41 Social Contract Theory
9.42 Natural Rights
9.43 The Civil State
9.44 The Declaration of Independence

Appendix I: Writing a Philosophical Essay
1. Essay Body
2. Essay Introduction
3. Essay Conclusion
4. Essay Structure: General Philosophical EssaY

Stephen Orr
Stephen Orr