Issues in Biology
Edition: 3
Copyright: 2023
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A solid understanding of basic scientific principles is necessary for everyone—regardless of job position or perceived ability to “do science.” Many students will find themselves in a place where they will need to understand some aspect of science. Most will be parents or voters—and presumably all will be consumers. For these reasons alone, all individuals must have some fundamental scientific skills in order to critically analyze situations, scenarios, or products in an objective, balanced way, or else risk damage to one’s self, loved ones, or the environment. Additionally, many will need to advocate for their health or the health of a loved one. Issues in Biology focuses on increasing a student's scientific literacy and Biology knowledge by using relevant issues that affect virtually all people. More than just a “hook” to interest students, Issues in Biology places the issue first, in the form of a current article or video, followed by the Biological content necessary to fully understand the significance of the article or video. Specifically written to appeal to the general public, this text makes it clear that all included scientific concepts are deliberately chosen, relevant, and useful to all college students, regardless of their major.
1 Science: What It Is and Why It Matters
1.1 Connecting You to Science in the Real World
1.1.1 Educating a Scientifically Literate Citizenry
1.1.2 Science in the News
1.1.3 Learning to Find Accurate Scientific Information in the News
1.1.4 Learning Science on a Need-to-Know Basis
1.2 What Science IS
1.2.1 The Nature and Process of Science
1.2.2 Scientific Methodology
1.2.3 Scientific Theory versus Popular Theory
1.2.4 The Meaning of Life
1.3 What Science Is NOT
1.3.1 Pseudoscience Is Not Science
1.3.2 Advertising Is Not Science
1.3.3 Statistics Is Not Science
1.3.4 Religion Is Not Science
2 Basics of Life: Cells and Energy
2.1 Two Types of Cells
2.1.1 Overview of a Cell
2.1.2 Prokaryote
2.1.3 Eukaryote
2.2 Cell Structure and Function
2.2.1 Cell Membrane
2.2.2 Cell Wall
2.2.3 Cytoskeleton
2.2.4 Organelles
2.2.5 Plant Cells vs. Animal Cells
2.3 Cellular Energy
2.3.1 Photosynthesis
2.3.2 Cellular Respiration
2.3.3 ADP - ATP Cycle
2.3.4 The Role of Enzymes
3 DNA: Structure, Replication, Transcription and Translation
3.1 DNA Structure and Replication
3.1.1 The History of DNA
3.1.2 Chromosomes
3.1.3 DNA Structure
3.1.4 Nucleotides
3.2 DNA Transcription and Translation
3.2.1 Protein Function
3.2.2 Protein Structure
3.2.3 DNA Transcribed into mRNA
3.2.4 mRNA Translated into Proteins
3.3 DNA Technology and Frontiers
3.3.1 Using DNA to Determine Relationships and Lineage
3.3.2 Forensic DNA
3.3.3 DNA’s Role in Aging
3.3.4 DNA’s Role in Cancer
4 Meiosis, Mitosis and Human Reproduction
4.1 Human Reproductive System
4.1.1 Female Reproductive System
4.1.2 Menstrual Cycle
4.1.3 Male Reproductive System
4.2 Sex Cells and Fertilization
4.2.1 Meiosis and Gamete Formation
4.2.2 Chromosome Assortment and Individuality
4.2.3 Fertilization
4.2.4 Contraception
4.2.5 Assisted Reproductive Techniques
4.3 Development from Fertilization to Birth
4.3.1 Mitosis: From 1 Cell to Trillions
4.3.2 Cell Differentiation and Stem Cells
4.3.3 Fetal Development and Teratogens
5 Genetics and Heredity
5.1 Classical Genetics
5.1.1 The Birth of Genetics
5.1.2 Genetic Traits and Alleles
5.1.3 Mendel’s Pea Plant Experiment
5.1.4 Phenotype, Genotype, and Dominance
5.1.5 Inheritance and Expression of Alleles
5.2 Heredity and the Influence of Your Genes
5.2.1 The Role of DNA in Genetics
5.2.2 Genetic Disorders Caused by Recessive Alleles
5.2.3 Sex Chromosomes and Sex-linked Genetic Disorders
5.2.4 Incomplete Dominance and Codominance
5.3 Modern Genetics
5.3.1 Human Genome Project
5.3.2 Genetic Testing
5.3.3 Gene Therapy
5.3.4 Epigenetics and Genetic Switches
6 Digestive System
6.1 Food Molecules
6.1.1 Food: Feast or Famine?
6.1.2 Carbohydrates
6.1.3 Lipids
6.1.4 Proteins
6.2 Food Digestion
6.2.1 Purpose of Food Digestion
6.2.2 Absorption of Food Molecules into Circulatory System
6.2.3 Mouth, Salivary Glands, and Digestion of Carbohydrates
6.2.4 Stomach, Small Intestines, and Digestion of Proteins
6.2.5 Liver, Pancreas, and Digestion of Fats
6.3 Nutrition
6.3.1 Eating Healthy Foods
6.3.2 Whole Grains vs. Refined Grains
6.3.3 Energy and Calories
6.3.4 Exercise
6.3.5 Vitamins and Minerals
7 Respiratory System
7.1 Gas Exchange
7.1.1 Role of Oxygen in Cellular Respiration
7.1.2 Obtaining Oxygen
7.1.3 Eliminating Carbon Dioxide
7.2 Anatomy of the Respiratory System
7.2.1 Overview of Respiratory System
7.2.2 Anatomy of the Lungs
7.2.3 Anatomy of Alveoli and Capillaries
7.2.4 The Diaphragm, Inhalation and Exhalation
7.3 Respiratory Diseases
7.3.1 Lung Cancer
7.3.2 Asthma
7.3.3 Chronic Obstructive Pulmonary Disease (COPD)
8 Circulatory System
8.1 Overview of the Human Circulatory System
8.1.1 Path of Blood Through the Body
8.1.2 Pulmonary Circuit
8.1.3 Systemic Circuit
8.2 Heart
8.2.1 Heart Structure
8.2.2 Heart Function
8.2.3 Heart Beat
8.3 Blood Vessels
8.3.1 Arteries
8.3.2 Veins
8.3.3 Capillaries
8.3.4 Blood Pressure
8.3.5 Blockages
8.4 Blood
8.4.1 Blood Composition and Cells
8.4.2 Function of Blood
8.4.3 Blood Type
9 Excretory System
9.1 Overview of the Human Excretory System
9.1.1 Cells Produce Waste
9.1.2 Filtering Out Toxins
9.1.3 Organs Involved in Waste Removal
9.2 Liver
9.2.1 Structure and Function of the Liver
9.2.2 Breakdown of Substances in the Liver
9.2.3 Synthesis and Storage of Hormones and Vital Compounds
9.3 Kidneys
9.3.1 Structure and Function of the Kidneys
9.3.2 Water Balance and Blood Pressure Regulation
9.3.3 Urine Elimination
9.3.4 Disorders and Diseases of the Kidneys
9.4 Large Intestine
9.4.1 Structure and Function of the Large Intestine
9.4.2 Water, Vitamin, and Sodium Absorption
9.4.3 Solid Waste Formation and Elimination
9.4.4 Disorders and Diseases of the Large Intestine
10 Endocrine System
10.1 Function of the Endocrine System
10.1.1 Overview of the Endocrine System
10.1.2 Hormones
10.1.3 Maintaining Homeostasis
10.1.4 Fight or Flight?
10.2 Organs and Glands of the Endocrine System
10.2.1 Hypothalamus
10.2.2 Pituitary
10.2.3 Thyroid
10.2.4 Pancreas
10.2.5 Other Structures Related to the Endocrine System
10.3 Disorders of the Endocrine System
10.3.1 Thyroid Dysfunction
10.3.2 Type 1 Diabetes
10.3.3 Type 2 Diabetes
10.3.4 Gestational Diabetes
10.3.5 Endocrine Disruptors
11 Nervous, Muscular, and Skeletal Systems
11.1 Nervous System
11.1.1 Central and Peripheral Nervous System
11.1.2 Somatic and Autonomic Nervous System
11.1.3 Nerve Cells
11.1.4 Learning and Addiction
11.1.5 Damage to, and Disorders of the Nervous System
11.2 Muscular System
11.2.1 Skeletal Muscles and Locomotion
11.2.2 The Neuromuscular Junction and Skeletal Muscle Contraction
11.2.3 Smooth Muscle and Cardiac Muscle
11.2.4 Damage to, and Disorders of Skeletal Muscles
11.3 Skeletal System
11.3.1 Structure and Function of Bones
11.3.2 Joints, Ligaments, and Cartilage
11.3.3 Damage to, and Disorders of Bones and Joints
12 Immune System
12.1 Innate Immune Response
12.1.1 Function of the Immune System
12.1.2 Skin is the First Line of Defense
12.1.3 Mucus Membranes Are a Weak Link
12.1.4 Fever and Inflammation
12.2 Adaptive Immune Response
12.2.1 Overview of the Adaptive Immune System
12.2.2 Lymphatic System
12.2.3 Cells of the Adaptive Immune System
12.2.4 Antigens and Antibodies
12.2.5 Memory Cells and Immunity
12.2.6 Allergic Response
12.3 Vaccines
12.3.1 How Vaccines Stimulate the Immune Response
12.3.2 Booster Shots
12.3.3 Importance of Vaccines
13 Evolution: The Foundation of Biology
13.1 Introduction to Evolution
13.1.1 What Is Evolution?
13.1.2 Charles Darwin and Natural Selection
13.1.3 Overview of Natural Selection
13.2 Evolution by Natural Selection
13.2.1 A Long Time!
13.2.2 Selective Agents
13.2.3 Genetic Variability
13.2.4 Inheritance of Mutations
13.3 Evidence of Evolution
13.3.1 Geology and the Fossil Record
13.3.2 Anatomical Similarities
13.3.3 Biogeography
13.3.4 DNA Evidence
13.4 Evolutionary Relationships Among Organisms
13.4.1 Defining “Species”
13.4.2 Organizing and Naming Species
13.4.3 Determining How Living Organisms Are Related
14 Bacteria, Viruses, and Microscopic Life
14.1 Bacteria
14.1.1 Bacteria: Overview and Structure
14.1.2 Bacterial Reproduction
14.1.3 Antibiotics
14.1.4 Beneficial Bacteria
14.2 Viruses
14.2.1 Alive or Not?
14.2.2 Viral Reproduction
14.2.3 HIV and AIDS
14.3 Other Microscopic Life
14.3.1 Single-Celled Eukaryotes
14.3.2 “Algae”
14.3.3 Pathogenic Microorganisms
15 Plants and Fungi
15.1 Fungi
15.1.1 It’s Not a Plant!
15.1.2 Mushrooms
15.1.3 Yeast and Mold
15.2 Types of Plants
15.2.1 Overview of Plants
15.2.2 Mosses and Ferns
15.2.3 Gymnosperms
15.2.4 Angiosperms
15.3 Plant Reproduction
15.3.1 Plant Sex: Male, Female, Both, and Neither!
15.3.2 Pollination and Pollinators
15.3.3 The Advantage of Seeds
15.4 Importance of Fungi and Plants to Humans
15.4.1 Photosynthesis and Oxygen Production
15.4.2 Food
15.4.3 Medicine
15.4.4 Building and Industrial Uses
16 Animals
16.1 Overview of Animals
16.1.1 What Are Animals?
16.1.2 Early Animals
16.1.3 Characteristics of an Animal Body
16.2 “Invertebrates”
16.2.1 Overview of Invertebrates
16.2.2 Simple Invertebrate Animals
16.2.3 Molluscs
16.2.4 Arthropods
16.3 “Vertebrates”
16.3.1 Overview of Vertebrates
16.3.2 Fishes
16.3.3 Amphibians
16.3.4 Birds and Other “Reptiles”
16.3.5 Mammals
16.4 Survival Strategies
16.4.1 What Does It Take to Survive?
16.4.2 Adaptations to Eat and Find Food
16.4.3 Adaptations to Prevent Predation
16.4.4 Adaptations to Survive in Harsh Environments
17 Ecology
17.1 How the Earth Supports Life
17.1.1 Ecology and the Biosphere
17.1.2 Biomes
17.2 Interactions between Life on Earth
17.2.1 Communities and Ecosystems
17.2.2 Population Ecology
17.2.3 Biodiversity and Extinction
17.2.4 Exotic and Invasive Species
18 Human Evolution, Migration, and Agriculture
18.1 Human Evolution
18.1.1 Africa: Humanity’s Ancestral Birthplace
18.1.2 Human Ancestors
18.1.3 The First Humans
18.2 Early Human Migration
18.2.1 Historical Human Migration Patterns
18.2.2 Development of Races and Different Skin Colors
18.3 Early Agriculture
18.3.1 Development of Agriculture
18.3.2 Domestication of Plants and Animals
19 Human Effects on the Earth
19.1 Human (Over) Population
19.1.1 The Population Explosion
19.1.2 Feeding the World
19.1.3 Genetically Modified Organisms (GMOs)
19.2 Consequences of Human Progress
19.2.1 Burning Fossil Fuels
19.2.2 The Water Crisis
19.2.3 Air and Water Pollution
19.3 Current and Future Challenges
19.3.1 Climate Change
19.3.2 Renewable Energy Sources
Born and raised in Fort Worth, TX, Michael Sawey graduated from Texas Wesleyan University with a degree in Biology. Michael’s passion for educating the public about science led him to serve as a high school science teacher for several years. Spurred on by his passion for environmental literacy, Michael continued his graduate studies at Texas Christian University. After earning his Master’s degree in Environmental Studies in 2008, Michael accepted a position in the Biology department at TCU where he would continue to expand and develop their popular non-majors course, Contemporary Issues in Biology. Michael’s areas of interest include environmental protection/conservation and preparing today’s college students to be tomorrow’s consumers of science.
Dr. April Sawey began her professional career teaching life and earth science to middle school students. She went on to earn her Master’s of Education in curriculum and instruction. April served as a public-school administrator for several years before pursuing her doctoral work. In 2009, she received her PhD in Science Education from Texas Christian University. Dr. Sawey joined the education department at the Botanical Research Institute of Texas (BRIT) as the Research and Evaluation Specialist. After several years at BRIT, April returned to her roots as a classroom educator. She now serves as the Elementary Science Specialist at Fort Worth Academy.
A solid understanding of basic scientific principles is necessary for everyone—regardless of job position or perceived ability to “do science.” Many students will find themselves in a place where they will need to understand some aspect of science. Most will be parents or voters—and presumably all will be consumers. For these reasons alone, all individuals must have some fundamental scientific skills in order to critically analyze situations, scenarios, or products in an objective, balanced way, or else risk damage to one’s self, loved ones, or the environment. Additionally, many will need to advocate for their health or the health of a loved one. Issues in Biology focuses on increasing a student's scientific literacy and Biology knowledge by using relevant issues that affect virtually all people. More than just a “hook” to interest students, Issues in Biology places the issue first, in the form of a current article or video, followed by the Biological content necessary to fully understand the significance of the article or video. Specifically written to appeal to the general public, this text makes it clear that all included scientific concepts are deliberately chosen, relevant, and useful to all college students, regardless of their major.
1 Science: What It Is and Why It Matters
1.1 Connecting You to Science in the Real World
1.1.1 Educating a Scientifically Literate Citizenry
1.1.2 Science in the News
1.1.3 Learning to Find Accurate Scientific Information in the News
1.1.4 Learning Science on a Need-to-Know Basis
1.2 What Science IS
1.2.1 The Nature and Process of Science
1.2.2 Scientific Methodology
1.2.3 Scientific Theory versus Popular Theory
1.2.4 The Meaning of Life
1.3 What Science Is NOT
1.3.1 Pseudoscience Is Not Science
1.3.2 Advertising Is Not Science
1.3.3 Statistics Is Not Science
1.3.4 Religion Is Not Science
2 Basics of Life: Cells and Energy
2.1 Two Types of Cells
2.1.1 Overview of a Cell
2.1.2 Prokaryote
2.1.3 Eukaryote
2.2 Cell Structure and Function
2.2.1 Cell Membrane
2.2.2 Cell Wall
2.2.3 Cytoskeleton
2.2.4 Organelles
2.2.5 Plant Cells vs. Animal Cells
2.3 Cellular Energy
2.3.1 Photosynthesis
2.3.2 Cellular Respiration
2.3.3 ADP - ATP Cycle
2.3.4 The Role of Enzymes
3 DNA: Structure, Replication, Transcription and Translation
3.1 DNA Structure and Replication
3.1.1 The History of DNA
3.1.2 Chromosomes
3.1.3 DNA Structure
3.1.4 Nucleotides
3.2 DNA Transcription and Translation
3.2.1 Protein Function
3.2.2 Protein Structure
3.2.3 DNA Transcribed into mRNA
3.2.4 mRNA Translated into Proteins
3.3 DNA Technology and Frontiers
3.3.1 Using DNA to Determine Relationships and Lineage
3.3.2 Forensic DNA
3.3.3 DNA’s Role in Aging
3.3.4 DNA’s Role in Cancer
4 Meiosis, Mitosis and Human Reproduction
4.1 Human Reproductive System
4.1.1 Female Reproductive System
4.1.2 Menstrual Cycle
4.1.3 Male Reproductive System
4.2 Sex Cells and Fertilization
4.2.1 Meiosis and Gamete Formation
4.2.2 Chromosome Assortment and Individuality
4.2.3 Fertilization
4.2.4 Contraception
4.2.5 Assisted Reproductive Techniques
4.3 Development from Fertilization to Birth
4.3.1 Mitosis: From 1 Cell to Trillions
4.3.2 Cell Differentiation and Stem Cells
4.3.3 Fetal Development and Teratogens
5 Genetics and Heredity
5.1 Classical Genetics
5.1.1 The Birth of Genetics
5.1.2 Genetic Traits and Alleles
5.1.3 Mendel’s Pea Plant Experiment
5.1.4 Phenotype, Genotype, and Dominance
5.1.5 Inheritance and Expression of Alleles
5.2 Heredity and the Influence of Your Genes
5.2.1 The Role of DNA in Genetics
5.2.2 Genetic Disorders Caused by Recessive Alleles
5.2.3 Sex Chromosomes and Sex-linked Genetic Disorders
5.2.4 Incomplete Dominance and Codominance
5.3 Modern Genetics
5.3.1 Human Genome Project
5.3.2 Genetic Testing
5.3.3 Gene Therapy
5.3.4 Epigenetics and Genetic Switches
6 Digestive System
6.1 Food Molecules
6.1.1 Food: Feast or Famine?
6.1.2 Carbohydrates
6.1.3 Lipids
6.1.4 Proteins
6.2 Food Digestion
6.2.1 Purpose of Food Digestion
6.2.2 Absorption of Food Molecules into Circulatory System
6.2.3 Mouth, Salivary Glands, and Digestion of Carbohydrates
6.2.4 Stomach, Small Intestines, and Digestion of Proteins
6.2.5 Liver, Pancreas, and Digestion of Fats
6.3 Nutrition
6.3.1 Eating Healthy Foods
6.3.2 Whole Grains vs. Refined Grains
6.3.3 Energy and Calories
6.3.4 Exercise
6.3.5 Vitamins and Minerals
7 Respiratory System
7.1 Gas Exchange
7.1.1 Role of Oxygen in Cellular Respiration
7.1.2 Obtaining Oxygen
7.1.3 Eliminating Carbon Dioxide
7.2 Anatomy of the Respiratory System
7.2.1 Overview of Respiratory System
7.2.2 Anatomy of the Lungs
7.2.3 Anatomy of Alveoli and Capillaries
7.2.4 The Diaphragm, Inhalation and Exhalation
7.3 Respiratory Diseases
7.3.1 Lung Cancer
7.3.2 Asthma
7.3.3 Chronic Obstructive Pulmonary Disease (COPD)
8 Circulatory System
8.1 Overview of the Human Circulatory System
8.1.1 Path of Blood Through the Body
8.1.2 Pulmonary Circuit
8.1.3 Systemic Circuit
8.2 Heart
8.2.1 Heart Structure
8.2.2 Heart Function
8.2.3 Heart Beat
8.3 Blood Vessels
8.3.1 Arteries
8.3.2 Veins
8.3.3 Capillaries
8.3.4 Blood Pressure
8.3.5 Blockages
8.4 Blood
8.4.1 Blood Composition and Cells
8.4.2 Function of Blood
8.4.3 Blood Type
9 Excretory System
9.1 Overview of the Human Excretory System
9.1.1 Cells Produce Waste
9.1.2 Filtering Out Toxins
9.1.3 Organs Involved in Waste Removal
9.2 Liver
9.2.1 Structure and Function of the Liver
9.2.2 Breakdown of Substances in the Liver
9.2.3 Synthesis and Storage of Hormones and Vital Compounds
9.3 Kidneys
9.3.1 Structure and Function of the Kidneys
9.3.2 Water Balance and Blood Pressure Regulation
9.3.3 Urine Elimination
9.3.4 Disorders and Diseases of the Kidneys
9.4 Large Intestine
9.4.1 Structure and Function of the Large Intestine
9.4.2 Water, Vitamin, and Sodium Absorption
9.4.3 Solid Waste Formation and Elimination
9.4.4 Disorders and Diseases of the Large Intestine
10 Endocrine System
10.1 Function of the Endocrine System
10.1.1 Overview of the Endocrine System
10.1.2 Hormones
10.1.3 Maintaining Homeostasis
10.1.4 Fight or Flight?
10.2 Organs and Glands of the Endocrine System
10.2.1 Hypothalamus
10.2.2 Pituitary
10.2.3 Thyroid
10.2.4 Pancreas
10.2.5 Other Structures Related to the Endocrine System
10.3 Disorders of the Endocrine System
10.3.1 Thyroid Dysfunction
10.3.2 Type 1 Diabetes
10.3.3 Type 2 Diabetes
10.3.4 Gestational Diabetes
10.3.5 Endocrine Disruptors
11 Nervous, Muscular, and Skeletal Systems
11.1 Nervous System
11.1.1 Central and Peripheral Nervous System
11.1.2 Somatic and Autonomic Nervous System
11.1.3 Nerve Cells
11.1.4 Learning and Addiction
11.1.5 Damage to, and Disorders of the Nervous System
11.2 Muscular System
11.2.1 Skeletal Muscles and Locomotion
11.2.2 The Neuromuscular Junction and Skeletal Muscle Contraction
11.2.3 Smooth Muscle and Cardiac Muscle
11.2.4 Damage to, and Disorders of Skeletal Muscles
11.3 Skeletal System
11.3.1 Structure and Function of Bones
11.3.2 Joints, Ligaments, and Cartilage
11.3.3 Damage to, and Disorders of Bones and Joints
12 Immune System
12.1 Innate Immune Response
12.1.1 Function of the Immune System
12.1.2 Skin is the First Line of Defense
12.1.3 Mucus Membranes Are a Weak Link
12.1.4 Fever and Inflammation
12.2 Adaptive Immune Response
12.2.1 Overview of the Adaptive Immune System
12.2.2 Lymphatic System
12.2.3 Cells of the Adaptive Immune System
12.2.4 Antigens and Antibodies
12.2.5 Memory Cells and Immunity
12.2.6 Allergic Response
12.3 Vaccines
12.3.1 How Vaccines Stimulate the Immune Response
12.3.2 Booster Shots
12.3.3 Importance of Vaccines
13 Evolution: The Foundation of Biology
13.1 Introduction to Evolution
13.1.1 What Is Evolution?
13.1.2 Charles Darwin and Natural Selection
13.1.3 Overview of Natural Selection
13.2 Evolution by Natural Selection
13.2.1 A Long Time!
13.2.2 Selective Agents
13.2.3 Genetic Variability
13.2.4 Inheritance of Mutations
13.3 Evidence of Evolution
13.3.1 Geology and the Fossil Record
13.3.2 Anatomical Similarities
13.3.3 Biogeography
13.3.4 DNA Evidence
13.4 Evolutionary Relationships Among Organisms
13.4.1 Defining “Species”
13.4.2 Organizing and Naming Species
13.4.3 Determining How Living Organisms Are Related
14 Bacteria, Viruses, and Microscopic Life
14.1 Bacteria
14.1.1 Bacteria: Overview and Structure
14.1.2 Bacterial Reproduction
14.1.3 Antibiotics
14.1.4 Beneficial Bacteria
14.2 Viruses
14.2.1 Alive or Not?
14.2.2 Viral Reproduction
14.2.3 HIV and AIDS
14.3 Other Microscopic Life
14.3.1 Single-Celled Eukaryotes
14.3.2 “Algae”
14.3.3 Pathogenic Microorganisms
15 Plants and Fungi
15.1 Fungi
15.1.1 It’s Not a Plant!
15.1.2 Mushrooms
15.1.3 Yeast and Mold
15.2 Types of Plants
15.2.1 Overview of Plants
15.2.2 Mosses and Ferns
15.2.3 Gymnosperms
15.2.4 Angiosperms
15.3 Plant Reproduction
15.3.1 Plant Sex: Male, Female, Both, and Neither!
15.3.2 Pollination and Pollinators
15.3.3 The Advantage of Seeds
15.4 Importance of Fungi and Plants to Humans
15.4.1 Photosynthesis and Oxygen Production
15.4.2 Food
15.4.3 Medicine
15.4.4 Building and Industrial Uses
16 Animals
16.1 Overview of Animals
16.1.1 What Are Animals?
16.1.2 Early Animals
16.1.3 Characteristics of an Animal Body
16.2 “Invertebrates”
16.2.1 Overview of Invertebrates
16.2.2 Simple Invertebrate Animals
16.2.3 Molluscs
16.2.4 Arthropods
16.3 “Vertebrates”
16.3.1 Overview of Vertebrates
16.3.2 Fishes
16.3.3 Amphibians
16.3.4 Birds and Other “Reptiles”
16.3.5 Mammals
16.4 Survival Strategies
16.4.1 What Does It Take to Survive?
16.4.2 Adaptations to Eat and Find Food
16.4.3 Adaptations to Prevent Predation
16.4.4 Adaptations to Survive in Harsh Environments
17 Ecology
17.1 How the Earth Supports Life
17.1.1 Ecology and the Biosphere
17.1.2 Biomes
17.2 Interactions between Life on Earth
17.2.1 Communities and Ecosystems
17.2.2 Population Ecology
17.2.3 Biodiversity and Extinction
17.2.4 Exotic and Invasive Species
18 Human Evolution, Migration, and Agriculture
18.1 Human Evolution
18.1.1 Africa: Humanity’s Ancestral Birthplace
18.1.2 Human Ancestors
18.1.3 The First Humans
18.2 Early Human Migration
18.2.1 Historical Human Migration Patterns
18.2.2 Development of Races and Different Skin Colors
18.3 Early Agriculture
18.3.1 Development of Agriculture
18.3.2 Domestication of Plants and Animals
19 Human Effects on the Earth
19.1 Human (Over) Population
19.1.1 The Population Explosion
19.1.2 Feeding the World
19.1.3 Genetically Modified Organisms (GMOs)
19.2 Consequences of Human Progress
19.2.1 Burning Fossil Fuels
19.2.2 The Water Crisis
19.2.3 Air and Water Pollution
19.3 Current and Future Challenges
19.3.1 Climate Change
19.3.2 Renewable Energy Sources
Born and raised in Fort Worth, TX, Michael Sawey graduated from Texas Wesleyan University with a degree in Biology. Michael’s passion for educating the public about science led him to serve as a high school science teacher for several years. Spurred on by his passion for environmental literacy, Michael continued his graduate studies at Texas Christian University. After earning his Master’s degree in Environmental Studies in 2008, Michael accepted a position in the Biology department at TCU where he would continue to expand and develop their popular non-majors course, Contemporary Issues in Biology. Michael’s areas of interest include environmental protection/conservation and preparing today’s college students to be tomorrow’s consumers of science.
Dr. April Sawey began her professional career teaching life and earth science to middle school students. She went on to earn her Master’s of Education in curriculum and instruction. April served as a public-school administrator for several years before pursuing her doctoral work. In 2009, she received her PhD in Science Education from Texas Christian University. Dr. Sawey joined the education department at the Botanical Research Institute of Texas (BRIT) as the Research and Evaluation Specialist. After several years at BRIT, April returned to her roots as a classroom educator. She now serves as the Elementary Science Specialist at Fort Worth Academy.