Linguistics: Words, Rules and Information
Edition: 2
Copyright: 2013
Pages: 296
Edition: 2
Copyright: 2013
Pages: 296
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CHAPTER 1 INTRODUCTION
1.1 Linguistics As A Science
1.1.1 What is a science?
1.1.2 Prescriptive grammar versus descriptive grammar
1.1.3 Ungrammatical versus unacceptable
1.2 Subfields Of Linguistics And Different Approaches In Linguistics
1.2.1 Subfields
1.2.2 Different approaches in linguistics
1.3 Noam Chomsky
1.4 What Can Linguists Do?
1.5 The Organization Of The Book
1.6 Further Reading
CHAPTER 2 MORPHOLOGY
2.1 What Is A Word?
2.1.1 Defining word
2.1.2 Criterion 1: Fixed order
2.1.3 Criterion 2: Integrity
2.1.4 Criterion 3: Inseparability
2.1.5 Criterion 4: Stress
2.2 Types Of Words
2.2.1 Content words versus function words
2.2.2 Lexeme and word forms
2.3 Morpheme
2.3.1 Stem versus root
2.3.2 Bound versus free morphemes
2.3.3 Inflectional versus derivational affixes
2.4 Identifying Morphemes
2.4.1 Criteria 1: Repeated occurrence
2.4.2 Criteria 2: Allomorphs
2.4.3 Criteria 3: Zero-morpheme
2.5 A Sample Morphological Analysis: Korean
2.6 Lexeme Creation
2.6.1 Derivation
2.6.2 Compounding
2.6.3 Other processes: analogy
2.7 Morpheme-Based Morphology Versus Lexeme-Based Morphology
2.7.1 Morpheme-based morphology (MBM)
2.7.2 Lexeme-based morphology (LBM)
2.8 Summary
2.9 Further Reading
CHAPTER 3 ENGLISH GRAMMAR REVIEW
3.1 Clauses
3.2 Subjects And Predicates In Clauses
3.3 Phrases And Phrasal Movement
3.4 The Breakdown Process: Finding Phrases
3.5 Two Important Distinctions: Functions And Categories
3.6 Lexical Categories: An Overview
3.6.1 Nouns
3.6.2 Verbs
3.6.3 Adjectives and Adverbs
3.6.4 Determiners
3.6.5 Prepositions
3.6.6 Coordinators (Conjunctions)
3.6.7 Complementizers
3.7 Nouns And Verbs In Depth
3.7.1 Nouns
3.7.1.1 Proper nouns, common nouns, and pronouns
3.7.1.2 Number and countablity
3.7.2 Verbs
3.7.2.1 Auxiliary verbs
3.7.2.2 Transitivity again
3.7.2.3 Tense
3.8 Summary
3.9 Further Reading
CHAPTER 4 SYNTAX I
4.1 Three Case Studies
4.1.1 The subject of an imperative sentence
4.1.2 Syntactic ambiguity
4.1.3 The part of speech of home
4.2 Lexical Categories And Phrases
4.2.1 Phrase defined
4.2.2 Noun phrases and their rules
4.2.2.1 Proper noun
4.2.2.2 Determiner + common noun
4.2.2.3 Determiner + adjective phrase + common noun
4.2.2.4 Determiner + noun + preposition phrase
4.2.2.5 Other noun phrases
4.2.2.6 Optionality
4.2.3 Verb phrases
4.2.3.1 Intransitive verb
4.2.3.2 Transitive verb
4.2.3.3 Verb + (noun phrase) + preposition phrase
4.2.3.4 Adverb phrase within a VP
4.2.4 Preposition phrases
4.2.5 Adverb and adjective phrases
4.2.5.1 Adjective phrase
4.2.5.2 Adverb phrase
4.2.6 Sentence rules
4.2.7 The conjunction rules
4.3 Modification And Disambiguation
4.4 Defining Trees
4.5 Sets Of Rules
4.6 Summary
4.7 Further Reading
CHAPTER 5 SYNTAX II: THEORY
5.1 Intermediate Phrases Within A Noun Phrase
5.2 Intermediate Phrases In Other Types Of Phrases
5.2.1 Verb phrase
5.2.2 Preposition phrase
5.2.3 Adjective phrase and adverb phrase
5.3 X’ Schemata
5.3.1 Complements versus adjuncts
5.3.2 Complements and adjuncts in X’ structures
5.4 Functional Categories
5.4.1 DP
5.4.2 TP
5.4.3 CP
5.5 Deriving Interrogative Sentences
5.6 Spanish Interrogatives
5.7 Wh-Movement
5.8 More On CP
5.9 Summary
5.10 Further Reading
CHAPTER 6 ELEMENTARY LOGIC
6.1 The Propositional Calculus
6.1.1 The logical connectives
6.1.1.1 Conjunction
6.1.1.2 Disjunction
6.1.1.3 The conditional
6.1.1.4 The biconditional
6.1.1.5 Negation
6.1.2 The computation of complex propositions
6.1.2.1 Definition
6.1.2.2 Some practice
6.1.2.3 Computation
6.1.3 Logical equivalence (laws)
6.2 The Predicate Calculus
6.2.1 Terms, predicates, constants, variables
6.2.2 Definition
6.2.3 Quantifiers and their scopes
6.2.3.1 Translations of quantifying expressions
6.2.3.2 The scopes of the quantifiers
6.3 Summary
6.4 Further Reading
CHAPTER 7 SEMANTICS
7.1 Preliminaries
7.1.1 Sets
7.1.2 Compositionality
7.1.3 Two types of meanings: reference and sense
7.2 Semantic Computation: Intransitive Verbs
7.2.1 A case of a simple sentence
7.2.2 A case of a conjunction
7.2.3 Disjunction
7.2.4 Phrasal conjunction
7.2.5 Phrasal disjunction
7.3 Semantic Computation: Transitive Verbs
7.4 Semantic Computation: Quantifiers
7.4.1 Every
7.4.2 Some
7.4.3 No
7.4.4 Most
7.5 Summary
7.6 Further Reading
CHAPTER 8 MEANING AND USE
8.1 Sentences, Utterances, And Propositions
8.2 H. Paul Grice And Contemporary Pragmatics
8.2.1 Conversational implicature
8.2.2 The Cooperative Principle and maxims
8.2.3 Opting out of the maxims
8.2.4 Empirical properties of conversational implicature
8.3 Generalized And Particularized Conversational Implicature
8.4 Conventional Implicature
8.4.1 Empirical properties of conventional implicature
8.5 Dimensions Of Meaning
8.6 Summary
8.7 Further Reading
CHAPTER 9 PRESUPPOSITION
9.1 Introduction
9.2 Presupposition And Grammatical Forms
9.3 Empirical Properties Of Presupposition
9.3.1 Family of sentences
9.3.2 Presuppositions are taken for granted
9.3.3 Presuppositions are cancelable
9.3.4 Presuppositions are suspendable
9.3.5 Summary of empirical proporties
9.4 The Projection Problem
9.5 Presupposition In St’át’imcets
9.6 Presuppositions In Courtroom Testimony
9.7 Conclusion
9.8 Further Reading
CHAPTER 10 SPEECH ACT THEORY
10.1 History Of Speech Act Theory
10.2 Performatives And Constatives
10.3 Locutionary, Illocutionary, And Perlocutionary Acts
10.3.1 Direct and indirect speech acts
10.3.2 Felicity conditions
10.3.3 Indirect acts and conversational implicatures
10.3.4 More on indirectness: politeness theory
10.4 Requests and power dynamics
10.4.1 Legal background
10.4.2 Interpreting requests as commands
10.5 The composition of a lie
10.6 Conclusion
10.7 Further Reading
CHAPTER 11 PHONETICS
11.1 How Speech Is Made
11.2 The Vocal Tract
11.3 Articulation Of Consonants
11.3.1 Place of articulation
11.3.1.1 Place of articulation: bilabial
11.3.1.2 Place of articulation: labiodental
11.3.1.3 Place of articulation: interdental
11.3.1.4 Place of articulation: alveolar
11.3.1.5 Place of articulation: alveopalatal
11.3.1.6 Place of articulation: velar
11.3.1.7 Place of articulation: glottal
11.3.1.8 Summary of places of articulation
11.3.2 Manner of articulation
11.3.2.1 Manner of articulation: stop
11.3.2.2 Manner of articulation: nasal
11.3.2.3 Manner of articulation: flap
11.3.2.4 Manner of articulation: fricative
11.3.2.5 Manner of articulation: affricate
11.3.2.6 Manner of articulation: approximant
11.3.2.7 Manner of articulation: lateral (lateral approximant)
11.3.2.8 Summary of manners of articulation
11.4 Articulation Of Vowels
11.4.1 Vowels and dipthongs
11.4.2 Vowel height
11.4.2.1 Low vowels
11.4.2.2 Mid vowels
11.4.2.3 High vowels
11.4.3 Vowel backness
11.4.3.1 Front vowels
11.4.3.2 Central vowels
11.4.3.3 Back vowels
11.4.3.4 Describing vowels
11.5 Transcription Of Words
11.6 Summary
11.7 Further Reading
11.8 Appendix: IPA Charts
CHAPTER 12 PHONOLOGY I
12.1 Phonemes And Allophones
12.1.1 Contrastive and noncontrastive phonemes
12.1.2 Minimal pairs
12.2 Phonological Rules
12.3 Feature Structures
12.3.1 Natural class
12.3.2 An online dating site
12.4 Case Studies
12.4.1 Case study: Sindhi
12.4.2 Case study: Korean
12.4.3 Case study: English
12.4.4 Case study: English Plurals
12.5 Types Of Phonological Changes
12.5.1 Assimilation
12.5.2 Dissimilation
12.5.3 Insertion
12.5.4 Deletion
12.5.5 Metathesis
12.6 Summary
12.7 Further Reading
CHAPTER 13 PHONOLOGY II: SYLLABLES
13.1 What Is A Syllable?
13.1.1 Sonority scale
13.1.2 Sonority peak and sonority sequencing
13.1.3 Some apparent counterexamples
13.2 Structures Of Syllables
13.2.1 The onset
13.2.2 The nucleus
13.2.3 The coda
13.3 Answers
13.3.1 The status of /s/ in the onset
13.3.2 The maximum number of phonemes in one syllable
13.3.3 Syllabification
13.3.4 Negative onset conditions
13.4 Summary
13.5 Further Reading
CHAPTER 14 ENVOI
CHAPTER 1 INTRODUCTION
1.1 Linguistics As A Science
1.1.1 What is a science?
1.1.2 Prescriptive grammar versus descriptive grammar
1.1.3 Ungrammatical versus unacceptable
1.2 Subfields Of Linguistics And Different Approaches In Linguistics
1.2.1 Subfields
1.2.2 Different approaches in linguistics
1.3 Noam Chomsky
1.4 What Can Linguists Do?
1.5 The Organization Of The Book
1.6 Further Reading
CHAPTER 2 MORPHOLOGY
2.1 What Is A Word?
2.1.1 Defining word
2.1.2 Criterion 1: Fixed order
2.1.3 Criterion 2: Integrity
2.1.4 Criterion 3: Inseparability
2.1.5 Criterion 4: Stress
2.2 Types Of Words
2.2.1 Content words versus function words
2.2.2 Lexeme and word forms
2.3 Morpheme
2.3.1 Stem versus root
2.3.2 Bound versus free morphemes
2.3.3 Inflectional versus derivational affixes
2.4 Identifying Morphemes
2.4.1 Criteria 1: Repeated occurrence
2.4.2 Criteria 2: Allomorphs
2.4.3 Criteria 3: Zero-morpheme
2.5 A Sample Morphological Analysis: Korean
2.6 Lexeme Creation
2.6.1 Derivation
2.6.2 Compounding
2.6.3 Other processes: analogy
2.7 Morpheme-Based Morphology Versus Lexeme-Based Morphology
2.7.1 Morpheme-based morphology (MBM)
2.7.2 Lexeme-based morphology (LBM)
2.8 Summary
2.9 Further Reading
CHAPTER 3 ENGLISH GRAMMAR REVIEW
3.1 Clauses
3.2 Subjects And Predicates In Clauses
3.3 Phrases And Phrasal Movement
3.4 The Breakdown Process: Finding Phrases
3.5 Two Important Distinctions: Functions And Categories
3.6 Lexical Categories: An Overview
3.6.1 Nouns
3.6.2 Verbs
3.6.3 Adjectives and Adverbs
3.6.4 Determiners
3.6.5 Prepositions
3.6.6 Coordinators (Conjunctions)
3.6.7 Complementizers
3.7 Nouns And Verbs In Depth
3.7.1 Nouns
3.7.1.1 Proper nouns, common nouns, and pronouns
3.7.1.2 Number and countablity
3.7.2 Verbs
3.7.2.1 Auxiliary verbs
3.7.2.2 Transitivity again
3.7.2.3 Tense
3.8 Summary
3.9 Further Reading
CHAPTER 4 SYNTAX I
4.1 Three Case Studies
4.1.1 The subject of an imperative sentence
4.1.2 Syntactic ambiguity
4.1.3 The part of speech of home
4.2 Lexical Categories And Phrases
4.2.1 Phrase defined
4.2.2 Noun phrases and their rules
4.2.2.1 Proper noun
4.2.2.2 Determiner + common noun
4.2.2.3 Determiner + adjective phrase + common noun
4.2.2.4 Determiner + noun + preposition phrase
4.2.2.5 Other noun phrases
4.2.2.6 Optionality
4.2.3 Verb phrases
4.2.3.1 Intransitive verb
4.2.3.2 Transitive verb
4.2.3.3 Verb + (noun phrase) + preposition phrase
4.2.3.4 Adverb phrase within a VP
4.2.4 Preposition phrases
4.2.5 Adverb and adjective phrases
4.2.5.1 Adjective phrase
4.2.5.2 Adverb phrase
4.2.6 Sentence rules
4.2.7 The conjunction rules
4.3 Modification And Disambiguation
4.4 Defining Trees
4.5 Sets Of Rules
4.6 Summary
4.7 Further Reading
CHAPTER 5 SYNTAX II: THEORY
5.1 Intermediate Phrases Within A Noun Phrase
5.2 Intermediate Phrases In Other Types Of Phrases
5.2.1 Verb phrase
5.2.2 Preposition phrase
5.2.3 Adjective phrase and adverb phrase
5.3 X’ Schemata
5.3.1 Complements versus adjuncts
5.3.2 Complements and adjuncts in X’ structures
5.4 Functional Categories
5.4.1 DP
5.4.2 TP
5.4.3 CP
5.5 Deriving Interrogative Sentences
5.6 Spanish Interrogatives
5.7 Wh-Movement
5.8 More On CP
5.9 Summary
5.10 Further Reading
CHAPTER 6 ELEMENTARY LOGIC
6.1 The Propositional Calculus
6.1.1 The logical connectives
6.1.1.1 Conjunction
6.1.1.2 Disjunction
6.1.1.3 The conditional
6.1.1.4 The biconditional
6.1.1.5 Negation
6.1.2 The computation of complex propositions
6.1.2.1 Definition
6.1.2.2 Some practice
6.1.2.3 Computation
6.1.3 Logical equivalence (laws)
6.2 The Predicate Calculus
6.2.1 Terms, predicates, constants, variables
6.2.2 Definition
6.2.3 Quantifiers and their scopes
6.2.3.1 Translations of quantifying expressions
6.2.3.2 The scopes of the quantifiers
6.3 Summary
6.4 Further Reading
CHAPTER 7 SEMANTICS
7.1 Preliminaries
7.1.1 Sets
7.1.2 Compositionality
7.1.3 Two types of meanings: reference and sense
7.2 Semantic Computation: Intransitive Verbs
7.2.1 A case of a simple sentence
7.2.2 A case of a conjunction
7.2.3 Disjunction
7.2.4 Phrasal conjunction
7.2.5 Phrasal disjunction
7.3 Semantic Computation: Transitive Verbs
7.4 Semantic Computation: Quantifiers
7.4.1 Every
7.4.2 Some
7.4.3 No
7.4.4 Most
7.5 Summary
7.6 Further Reading
CHAPTER 8 MEANING AND USE
8.1 Sentences, Utterances, And Propositions
8.2 H. Paul Grice And Contemporary Pragmatics
8.2.1 Conversational implicature
8.2.2 The Cooperative Principle and maxims
8.2.3 Opting out of the maxims
8.2.4 Empirical properties of conversational implicature
8.3 Generalized And Particularized Conversational Implicature
8.4 Conventional Implicature
8.4.1 Empirical properties of conventional implicature
8.5 Dimensions Of Meaning
8.6 Summary
8.7 Further Reading
CHAPTER 9 PRESUPPOSITION
9.1 Introduction
9.2 Presupposition And Grammatical Forms
9.3 Empirical Properties Of Presupposition
9.3.1 Family of sentences
9.3.2 Presuppositions are taken for granted
9.3.3 Presuppositions are cancelable
9.3.4 Presuppositions are suspendable
9.3.5 Summary of empirical proporties
9.4 The Projection Problem
9.5 Presupposition In St’át’imcets
9.6 Presuppositions In Courtroom Testimony
9.7 Conclusion
9.8 Further Reading
CHAPTER 10 SPEECH ACT THEORY
10.1 History Of Speech Act Theory
10.2 Performatives And Constatives
10.3 Locutionary, Illocutionary, And Perlocutionary Acts
10.3.1 Direct and indirect speech acts
10.3.2 Felicity conditions
10.3.3 Indirect acts and conversational implicatures
10.3.4 More on indirectness: politeness theory
10.4 Requests and power dynamics
10.4.1 Legal background
10.4.2 Interpreting requests as commands
10.5 The composition of a lie
10.6 Conclusion
10.7 Further Reading
CHAPTER 11 PHONETICS
11.1 How Speech Is Made
11.2 The Vocal Tract
11.3 Articulation Of Consonants
11.3.1 Place of articulation
11.3.1.1 Place of articulation: bilabial
11.3.1.2 Place of articulation: labiodental
11.3.1.3 Place of articulation: interdental
11.3.1.4 Place of articulation: alveolar
11.3.1.5 Place of articulation: alveopalatal
11.3.1.6 Place of articulation: velar
11.3.1.7 Place of articulation: glottal
11.3.1.8 Summary of places of articulation
11.3.2 Manner of articulation
11.3.2.1 Manner of articulation: stop
11.3.2.2 Manner of articulation: nasal
11.3.2.3 Manner of articulation: flap
11.3.2.4 Manner of articulation: fricative
11.3.2.5 Manner of articulation: affricate
11.3.2.6 Manner of articulation: approximant
11.3.2.7 Manner of articulation: lateral (lateral approximant)
11.3.2.8 Summary of manners of articulation
11.4 Articulation Of Vowels
11.4.1 Vowels and dipthongs
11.4.2 Vowel height
11.4.2.1 Low vowels
11.4.2.2 Mid vowels
11.4.2.3 High vowels
11.4.3 Vowel backness
11.4.3.1 Front vowels
11.4.3.2 Central vowels
11.4.3.3 Back vowels
11.4.3.4 Describing vowels
11.5 Transcription Of Words
11.6 Summary
11.7 Further Reading
11.8 Appendix: IPA Charts
CHAPTER 12 PHONOLOGY I
12.1 Phonemes And Allophones
12.1.1 Contrastive and noncontrastive phonemes
12.1.2 Minimal pairs
12.2 Phonological Rules
12.3 Feature Structures
12.3.1 Natural class
12.3.2 An online dating site
12.4 Case Studies
12.4.1 Case study: Sindhi
12.4.2 Case study: Korean
12.4.3 Case study: English
12.4.4 Case study: English Plurals
12.5 Types Of Phonological Changes
12.5.1 Assimilation
12.5.2 Dissimilation
12.5.3 Insertion
12.5.4 Deletion
12.5.5 Metathesis
12.6 Summary
12.7 Further Reading
CHAPTER 13 PHONOLOGY II: SYLLABLES
13.1 What Is A Syllable?
13.1.1 Sonority scale
13.1.2 Sonority peak and sonority sequencing
13.1.3 Some apparent counterexamples
13.2 Structures Of Syllables
13.2.1 The onset
13.2.2 The nucleus
13.2.3 The coda
13.3 Answers
13.3.1 The status of /s/ in the onset
13.3.2 The maximum number of phonemes in one syllable
13.3.3 Syllabification
13.3.4 Negative onset conditions
13.4 Summary
13.5 Further Reading
CHAPTER 14 ENVOI
1.1 Linguistics As A Science
1.1.1 What is a science?
1.1.2 Prescriptive grammar versus descriptive grammar
1.1.3 Ungrammatical versus unacceptable
1.2 Subfields Of Linguistics And Different Approaches In Linguistics
1.2.1 Subfields
1.2.2 Different approaches in linguistics
1.3 Noam Chomsky
1.4 What Can Linguists Do?
1.5 The Organization Of The Book
1.6 Further Reading
CHAPTER 2 MORPHOLOGY
2.1 What Is A Word?
2.1.1 Defining word
2.1.2 Criterion 1: Fixed order
2.1.3 Criterion 2: Integrity
2.1.4 Criterion 3: Inseparability
2.1.5 Criterion 4: Stress
2.2 Types Of Words
2.2.1 Content words versus function words
2.2.2 Lexeme and word forms
2.3 Morpheme
2.3.1 Stem versus root
2.3.2 Bound versus free morphemes
2.3.3 Inflectional versus derivational affixes
2.4 Identifying Morphemes
2.4.1 Criteria 1: Repeated occurrence
2.4.2 Criteria 2: Allomorphs
2.4.3 Criteria 3: Zero-morpheme
2.5 A Sample Morphological Analysis: Korean
2.6 Lexeme Creation
2.6.1 Derivation
2.6.2 Compounding
2.6.3 Other processes: analogy
2.7 Morpheme-Based Morphology Versus Lexeme-Based Morphology
2.7.1 Morpheme-based morphology (MBM)
2.7.2 Lexeme-based morphology (LBM)
2.8 Summary
2.9 Further Reading
CHAPTER 3 ENGLISH GRAMMAR REVIEW
3.1 Clauses
3.2 Subjects And Predicates In Clauses
3.3 Phrases And Phrasal Movement
3.4 The Breakdown Process: Finding Phrases
3.5 Two Important Distinctions: Functions And Categories
3.6 Lexical Categories: An Overview
3.6.1 Nouns
3.6.2 Verbs
3.6.3 Adjectives and Adverbs
3.6.4 Determiners
3.6.5 Prepositions
3.6.6 Coordinators (Conjunctions)
3.6.7 Complementizers
3.7 Nouns And Verbs In Depth
3.7.1 Nouns
3.7.1.1 Proper nouns, common nouns, and pronouns
3.7.1.2 Number and countablity
3.7.2 Verbs
3.7.2.1 Auxiliary verbs
3.7.2.2 Transitivity again
3.7.2.3 Tense
3.8 Summary
3.9 Further Reading
CHAPTER 4 SYNTAX I
4.1 Three Case Studies
4.1.1 The subject of an imperative sentence
4.1.2 Syntactic ambiguity
4.1.3 The part of speech of home
4.2 Lexical Categories And Phrases
4.2.1 Phrase defined
4.2.2 Noun phrases and their rules
4.2.2.1 Proper noun
4.2.2.2 Determiner + common noun
4.2.2.3 Determiner + adjective phrase + common noun
4.2.2.4 Determiner + noun + preposition phrase
4.2.2.5 Other noun phrases
4.2.2.6 Optionality
4.2.3 Verb phrases
4.2.3.1 Intransitive verb
4.2.3.2 Transitive verb
4.2.3.3 Verb + (noun phrase) + preposition phrase
4.2.3.4 Adverb phrase within a VP
4.2.4 Preposition phrases
4.2.5 Adverb and adjective phrases
4.2.5.1 Adjective phrase
4.2.5.2 Adverb phrase
4.2.6 Sentence rules
4.2.7 The conjunction rules
4.3 Modification And Disambiguation
4.4 Defining Trees
4.5 Sets Of Rules
4.6 Summary
4.7 Further Reading
CHAPTER 5 SYNTAX II: THEORY
5.1 Intermediate Phrases Within A Noun Phrase
5.2 Intermediate Phrases In Other Types Of Phrases
5.2.1 Verb phrase
5.2.2 Preposition phrase
5.2.3 Adjective phrase and adverb phrase
5.3 X’ Schemata
5.3.1 Complements versus adjuncts
5.3.2 Complements and adjuncts in X’ structures
5.4 Functional Categories
5.4.1 DP
5.4.2 TP
5.4.3 CP
5.5 Deriving Interrogative Sentences
5.6 Spanish Interrogatives
5.7 Wh-Movement
5.8 More On CP
5.9 Summary
5.10 Further Reading
CHAPTER 6 ELEMENTARY LOGIC
6.1 The Propositional Calculus
6.1.1 The logical connectives
6.1.1.1 Conjunction
6.1.1.2 Disjunction
6.1.1.3 The conditional
6.1.1.4 The biconditional
6.1.1.5 Negation
6.1.2 The computation of complex propositions
6.1.2.1 Definition
6.1.2.2 Some practice
6.1.2.3 Computation
6.1.3 Logical equivalence (laws)
6.2 The Predicate Calculus
6.2.1 Terms, predicates, constants, variables
6.2.2 Definition
6.2.3 Quantifiers and their scopes
6.2.3.1 Translations of quantifying expressions
6.2.3.2 The scopes of the quantifiers
6.3 Summary
6.4 Further Reading
CHAPTER 7 SEMANTICS
7.1 Preliminaries
7.1.1 Sets
7.1.2 Compositionality
7.1.3 Two types of meanings: reference and sense
7.2 Semantic Computation: Intransitive Verbs
7.2.1 A case of a simple sentence
7.2.2 A case of a conjunction
7.2.3 Disjunction
7.2.4 Phrasal conjunction
7.2.5 Phrasal disjunction
7.3 Semantic Computation: Transitive Verbs
7.4 Semantic Computation: Quantifiers
7.4.1 Every
7.4.2 Some
7.4.3 No
7.4.4 Most
7.5 Summary
7.6 Further Reading
CHAPTER 8 MEANING AND USE
8.1 Sentences, Utterances, And Propositions
8.2 H. Paul Grice And Contemporary Pragmatics
8.2.1 Conversational implicature
8.2.2 The Cooperative Principle and maxims
8.2.3 Opting out of the maxims
8.2.4 Empirical properties of conversational implicature
8.3 Generalized And Particularized Conversational Implicature
8.4 Conventional Implicature
8.4.1 Empirical properties of conventional implicature
8.5 Dimensions Of Meaning
8.6 Summary
8.7 Further Reading
CHAPTER 9 PRESUPPOSITION
9.1 Introduction
9.2 Presupposition And Grammatical Forms
9.3 Empirical Properties Of Presupposition
9.3.1 Family of sentences
9.3.2 Presuppositions are taken for granted
9.3.3 Presuppositions are cancelable
9.3.4 Presuppositions are suspendable
9.3.5 Summary of empirical proporties
9.4 The Projection Problem
9.5 Presupposition In St’át’imcets
9.6 Presuppositions In Courtroom Testimony
9.7 Conclusion
9.8 Further Reading
CHAPTER 10 SPEECH ACT THEORY
10.1 History Of Speech Act Theory
10.2 Performatives And Constatives
10.3 Locutionary, Illocutionary, And Perlocutionary Acts
10.3.1 Direct and indirect speech acts
10.3.2 Felicity conditions
10.3.3 Indirect acts and conversational implicatures
10.3.4 More on indirectness: politeness theory
10.4 Requests and power dynamics
10.4.1 Legal background
10.4.2 Interpreting requests as commands
10.5 The composition of a lie
10.6 Conclusion
10.7 Further Reading
CHAPTER 11 PHONETICS
11.1 How Speech Is Made
11.2 The Vocal Tract
11.3 Articulation Of Consonants
11.3.1 Place of articulation
11.3.1.1 Place of articulation: bilabial
11.3.1.2 Place of articulation: labiodental
11.3.1.3 Place of articulation: interdental
11.3.1.4 Place of articulation: alveolar
11.3.1.5 Place of articulation: alveopalatal
11.3.1.6 Place of articulation: velar
11.3.1.7 Place of articulation: glottal
11.3.1.8 Summary of places of articulation
11.3.2 Manner of articulation
11.3.2.1 Manner of articulation: stop
11.3.2.2 Manner of articulation: nasal
11.3.2.3 Manner of articulation: flap
11.3.2.4 Manner of articulation: fricative
11.3.2.5 Manner of articulation: affricate
11.3.2.6 Manner of articulation: approximant
11.3.2.7 Manner of articulation: lateral (lateral approximant)
11.3.2.8 Summary of manners of articulation
11.4 Articulation Of Vowels
11.4.1 Vowels and dipthongs
11.4.2 Vowel height
11.4.2.1 Low vowels
11.4.2.2 Mid vowels
11.4.2.3 High vowels
11.4.3 Vowel backness
11.4.3.1 Front vowels
11.4.3.2 Central vowels
11.4.3.3 Back vowels
11.4.3.4 Describing vowels
11.5 Transcription Of Words
11.6 Summary
11.7 Further Reading
11.8 Appendix: IPA Charts
CHAPTER 12 PHONOLOGY I
12.1 Phonemes And Allophones
12.1.1 Contrastive and noncontrastive phonemes
12.1.2 Minimal pairs
12.2 Phonological Rules
12.3 Feature Structures
12.3.1 Natural class
12.3.2 An online dating site
12.4 Case Studies
12.4.1 Case study: Sindhi
12.4.2 Case study: Korean
12.4.3 Case study: English
12.4.4 Case study: English Plurals
12.5 Types Of Phonological Changes
12.5.1 Assimilation
12.5.2 Dissimilation
12.5.3 Insertion
12.5.4 Deletion
12.5.5 Metathesis
12.6 Summary
12.7 Further Reading
CHAPTER 13 PHONOLOGY II: SYLLABLES
13.1 What Is A Syllable?
13.1.1 Sonority scale
13.1.2 Sonority peak and sonority sequencing
13.1.3 Some apparent counterexamples
13.2 Structures Of Syllables
13.2.1 The onset
13.2.2 The nucleus
13.2.3 The coda
13.3 Answers
13.3.1 The status of /s/ in the onset
13.3.2 The maximum number of phonemes in one syllable
13.3.3 Syllabification
13.3.4 Negative onset conditions
13.4 Summary
13.5 Further Reading
CHAPTER 14 ENVOI
CHAPTER 1 INTRODUCTION
1.1 Linguistics As A Science
1.1.1 What is a science?
1.1.2 Prescriptive grammar versus descriptive grammar
1.1.3 Ungrammatical versus unacceptable
1.2 Subfields Of Linguistics And Different Approaches In Linguistics
1.2.1 Subfields
1.2.2 Different approaches in linguistics
1.3 Noam Chomsky
1.4 What Can Linguists Do?
1.5 The Organization Of The Book
1.6 Further Reading
CHAPTER 2 MORPHOLOGY
2.1 What Is A Word?
2.1.1 Defining word
2.1.2 Criterion 1: Fixed order
2.1.3 Criterion 2: Integrity
2.1.4 Criterion 3: Inseparability
2.1.5 Criterion 4: Stress
2.2 Types Of Words
2.2.1 Content words versus function words
2.2.2 Lexeme and word forms
2.3 Morpheme
2.3.1 Stem versus root
2.3.2 Bound versus free morphemes
2.3.3 Inflectional versus derivational affixes
2.4 Identifying Morphemes
2.4.1 Criteria 1: Repeated occurrence
2.4.2 Criteria 2: Allomorphs
2.4.3 Criteria 3: Zero-morpheme
2.5 A Sample Morphological Analysis: Korean
2.6 Lexeme Creation
2.6.1 Derivation
2.6.2 Compounding
2.6.3 Other processes: analogy
2.7 Morpheme-Based Morphology Versus Lexeme-Based Morphology
2.7.1 Morpheme-based morphology (MBM)
2.7.2 Lexeme-based morphology (LBM)
2.8 Summary
2.9 Further Reading
CHAPTER 3 ENGLISH GRAMMAR REVIEW
3.1 Clauses
3.2 Subjects And Predicates In Clauses
3.3 Phrases And Phrasal Movement
3.4 The Breakdown Process: Finding Phrases
3.5 Two Important Distinctions: Functions And Categories
3.6 Lexical Categories: An Overview
3.6.1 Nouns
3.6.2 Verbs
3.6.3 Adjectives and Adverbs
3.6.4 Determiners
3.6.5 Prepositions
3.6.6 Coordinators (Conjunctions)
3.6.7 Complementizers
3.7 Nouns And Verbs In Depth
3.7.1 Nouns
3.7.1.1 Proper nouns, common nouns, and pronouns
3.7.1.2 Number and countablity
3.7.2 Verbs
3.7.2.1 Auxiliary verbs
3.7.2.2 Transitivity again
3.7.2.3 Tense
3.8 Summary
3.9 Further Reading
CHAPTER 4 SYNTAX I
4.1 Three Case Studies
4.1.1 The subject of an imperative sentence
4.1.2 Syntactic ambiguity
4.1.3 The part of speech of home
4.2 Lexical Categories And Phrases
4.2.1 Phrase defined
4.2.2 Noun phrases and their rules
4.2.2.1 Proper noun
4.2.2.2 Determiner + common noun
4.2.2.3 Determiner + adjective phrase + common noun
4.2.2.4 Determiner + noun + preposition phrase
4.2.2.5 Other noun phrases
4.2.2.6 Optionality
4.2.3 Verb phrases
4.2.3.1 Intransitive verb
4.2.3.2 Transitive verb
4.2.3.3 Verb + (noun phrase) + preposition phrase
4.2.3.4 Adverb phrase within a VP
4.2.4 Preposition phrases
4.2.5 Adverb and adjective phrases
4.2.5.1 Adjective phrase
4.2.5.2 Adverb phrase
4.2.6 Sentence rules
4.2.7 The conjunction rules
4.3 Modification And Disambiguation
4.4 Defining Trees
4.5 Sets Of Rules
4.6 Summary
4.7 Further Reading
CHAPTER 5 SYNTAX II: THEORY
5.1 Intermediate Phrases Within A Noun Phrase
5.2 Intermediate Phrases In Other Types Of Phrases
5.2.1 Verb phrase
5.2.2 Preposition phrase
5.2.3 Adjective phrase and adverb phrase
5.3 X’ Schemata
5.3.1 Complements versus adjuncts
5.3.2 Complements and adjuncts in X’ structures
5.4 Functional Categories
5.4.1 DP
5.4.2 TP
5.4.3 CP
5.5 Deriving Interrogative Sentences
5.6 Spanish Interrogatives
5.7 Wh-Movement
5.8 More On CP
5.9 Summary
5.10 Further Reading
CHAPTER 6 ELEMENTARY LOGIC
6.1 The Propositional Calculus
6.1.1 The logical connectives
6.1.1.1 Conjunction
6.1.1.2 Disjunction
6.1.1.3 The conditional
6.1.1.4 The biconditional
6.1.1.5 Negation
6.1.2 The computation of complex propositions
6.1.2.1 Definition
6.1.2.2 Some practice
6.1.2.3 Computation
6.1.3 Logical equivalence (laws)
6.2 The Predicate Calculus
6.2.1 Terms, predicates, constants, variables
6.2.2 Definition
6.2.3 Quantifiers and their scopes
6.2.3.1 Translations of quantifying expressions
6.2.3.2 The scopes of the quantifiers
6.3 Summary
6.4 Further Reading
CHAPTER 7 SEMANTICS
7.1 Preliminaries
7.1.1 Sets
7.1.2 Compositionality
7.1.3 Two types of meanings: reference and sense
7.2 Semantic Computation: Intransitive Verbs
7.2.1 A case of a simple sentence
7.2.2 A case of a conjunction
7.2.3 Disjunction
7.2.4 Phrasal conjunction
7.2.5 Phrasal disjunction
7.3 Semantic Computation: Transitive Verbs
7.4 Semantic Computation: Quantifiers
7.4.1 Every
7.4.2 Some
7.4.3 No
7.4.4 Most
7.5 Summary
7.6 Further Reading
CHAPTER 8 MEANING AND USE
8.1 Sentences, Utterances, And Propositions
8.2 H. Paul Grice And Contemporary Pragmatics
8.2.1 Conversational implicature
8.2.2 The Cooperative Principle and maxims
8.2.3 Opting out of the maxims
8.2.4 Empirical properties of conversational implicature
8.3 Generalized And Particularized Conversational Implicature
8.4 Conventional Implicature
8.4.1 Empirical properties of conventional implicature
8.5 Dimensions Of Meaning
8.6 Summary
8.7 Further Reading
CHAPTER 9 PRESUPPOSITION
9.1 Introduction
9.2 Presupposition And Grammatical Forms
9.3 Empirical Properties Of Presupposition
9.3.1 Family of sentences
9.3.2 Presuppositions are taken for granted
9.3.3 Presuppositions are cancelable
9.3.4 Presuppositions are suspendable
9.3.5 Summary of empirical proporties
9.4 The Projection Problem
9.5 Presupposition In St’át’imcets
9.6 Presuppositions In Courtroom Testimony
9.7 Conclusion
9.8 Further Reading
CHAPTER 10 SPEECH ACT THEORY
10.1 History Of Speech Act Theory
10.2 Performatives And Constatives
10.3 Locutionary, Illocutionary, And Perlocutionary Acts
10.3.1 Direct and indirect speech acts
10.3.2 Felicity conditions
10.3.3 Indirect acts and conversational implicatures
10.3.4 More on indirectness: politeness theory
10.4 Requests and power dynamics
10.4.1 Legal background
10.4.2 Interpreting requests as commands
10.5 The composition of a lie
10.6 Conclusion
10.7 Further Reading
CHAPTER 11 PHONETICS
11.1 How Speech Is Made
11.2 The Vocal Tract
11.3 Articulation Of Consonants
11.3.1 Place of articulation
11.3.1.1 Place of articulation: bilabial
11.3.1.2 Place of articulation: labiodental
11.3.1.3 Place of articulation: interdental
11.3.1.4 Place of articulation: alveolar
11.3.1.5 Place of articulation: alveopalatal
11.3.1.6 Place of articulation: velar
11.3.1.7 Place of articulation: glottal
11.3.1.8 Summary of places of articulation
11.3.2 Manner of articulation
11.3.2.1 Manner of articulation: stop
11.3.2.2 Manner of articulation: nasal
11.3.2.3 Manner of articulation: flap
11.3.2.4 Manner of articulation: fricative
11.3.2.5 Manner of articulation: affricate
11.3.2.6 Manner of articulation: approximant
11.3.2.7 Manner of articulation: lateral (lateral approximant)
11.3.2.8 Summary of manners of articulation
11.4 Articulation Of Vowels
11.4.1 Vowels and dipthongs
11.4.2 Vowel height
11.4.2.1 Low vowels
11.4.2.2 Mid vowels
11.4.2.3 High vowels
11.4.3 Vowel backness
11.4.3.1 Front vowels
11.4.3.2 Central vowels
11.4.3.3 Back vowels
11.4.3.4 Describing vowels
11.5 Transcription Of Words
11.6 Summary
11.7 Further Reading
11.8 Appendix: IPA Charts
CHAPTER 12 PHONOLOGY I
12.1 Phonemes And Allophones
12.1.1 Contrastive and noncontrastive phonemes
12.1.2 Minimal pairs
12.2 Phonological Rules
12.3 Feature Structures
12.3.1 Natural class
12.3.2 An online dating site
12.4 Case Studies
12.4.1 Case study: Sindhi
12.4.2 Case study: Korean
12.4.3 Case study: English
12.4.4 Case study: English Plurals
12.5 Types Of Phonological Changes
12.5.1 Assimilation
12.5.2 Dissimilation
12.5.3 Insertion
12.5.4 Deletion
12.5.5 Metathesis
12.6 Summary
12.7 Further Reading
CHAPTER 13 PHONOLOGY II: SYLLABLES
13.1 What Is A Syllable?
13.1.1 Sonority scale
13.1.2 Sonority peak and sonority sequencing
13.1.3 Some apparent counterexamples
13.2 Structures Of Syllables
13.2.1 The onset
13.2.2 The nucleus
13.2.3 The coda
13.3 Answers
13.3.1 The status of /s/ in the onset
13.3.2 The maximum number of phonemes in one syllable
13.3.3 Syllabification
13.3.4 Negative onset conditions
13.4 Summary
13.5 Further Reading
CHAPTER 14 ENVOI
Chongwon Park is Associate Professor of Linguistics at the University of Minnesota Duluth. His research interests include, but are not limited to, morphology, syntax, and Cognitive Grammar. His recent research has appeared in the academic journals Functions of Language and Language Sciences, among others.
William Salmon is Assistant Professor of Linguistics at the University of Minnesota Duluth. He works on semantics and pragmatics in natural language, information structure. and language variation. He has published in academic journals such as the Journal of Pragmatics and Language and Communication.