Policing for the 21st Century: Realizing the Vision of Police in a Free Society

Part 1 Background

1 Democratic Policing 
Life, Liberty, and Property 
Democratic Policing: What is it?
Coercion as the Core Function of the Police 
Liberty as the Core Organizing Principle of Policing: The Intelligent use of Coercion 
The Lack of Adequate Information about Police Coercion 
The Reality of Lived Experience vs. the Statistical Reality

2 The History of Policing: Ancient Roots and Early Policing 
Early Roots 
Early Policing In England 
     Frankpledge 
     The Watch System 
     Stipendiary Policing 
18th-Century Attempts to Reform and Formalize Policing in England 
     Early Police Experiments 
     Intellectual Debates 
     Metropolitan Police 
      “Peel’s” Principles of Policing 
Early Policing In America
     17th And 18th Century Colonial America 
     19th Century Transition To Modern Policing 

3 The History of Policing: Modern Policing in America 
The Political Era, 1845–1920s
     The Politics 
     The Job 
     Technological Innovations 
     Early Efforts to Reform 
     Boston Police Strike 
     African Americans in Policing 
     Native Americans in Policing 
     Hispanic Americans in Policing
     Asian Pacific Islander Desi Americans in Policing 
     Women In Policing 
The Reform Era, 1920s–1980s 
     Key Reformers
     1960s Crime & Race Riots 
     Research and Education
     Attempts to Diversify 
The Community Problem Solving Era, 1980s–2000s 
     Rhetoric versus Reality 
     The Original Paper 
     What Other Experts Say 
     Our Rationale 
The Intelligence Era, 2000s–Present 
     Focus on Homeland Security and Intelligence Gathering and Sharing 
     Evidence-Based and Intelligence-Led Policing Strategies 
     Increased Police Accountability and a Shift Toward Democratic Policing 

Part 2 Fundamentals

4 The Law Enforcement Industry 
Decentralized, Fragmented, and Local 
Who is an “Officer,” and What is an “Agency”? 
State and Local Agencies 
     Local Police Departments 
     Sheriffs’ Offices 
     Primary State Agencies 
     Special Jurisdiction Agencies 
     Constable and Marshal Offices 
Agency Size Distribution 
Federal Agencies 
Private Police 

5 Local Agency Structure and Organization
Organizational Mission and Mission Statement 
Bureaucracy and Organizational Structure 
Community Policing and Organizational Change 
Special Functions and Units 
Multi-Jurisdictional Task Forces (MJTFS) 
Police Paramilitary Units 

6 Police Officers: Hiring And Training Guardians
The Job of Police Officer: Fact versus Fiction 
The Importance of Recruitment and Selection 
The Recruitment and Selection Process 
     Eligibility Requirements 
     Testing and Screening 
Training New Recruits
The Extent and Impact of Diversity in law Enforcement 
The Effectiveness of Female and Minority Officers 
The Push for College-Educated Officers 
Does a College Degree Make a Difference? 
Minimum Education Requirements 
How Many Cops Have a College Degree? 
Police Subculture 
Police Stress 

7 Police Discretion 
Overview 
What is Discretion? 
What are the Correlates of Police Discretion? 
     Starting with the Big Picture: Common Criminal Justice Decision Correlates 
Police Discretion Correlates: Context, Individual, Situation, Organization, and Political Values 
     Context 
     Individual 
     Situation 
     Organization 
     Political Values and Policy 
Controlled Discretion 
The Lack of Feedback Loops in Policing 

Part 3 Controlling Crime

8 The Basic Functions of Police Work
Basic Functions 
     Law Enforcement (Aka Crime Control) 
     Order Maintenance 
     Service 
Managing Calls for Service 
     Resources 
Public Expectations of Police 
Patrol Practices 
     Patrol Personnel Deployment: Beats 
     Patrol Personnel Deployment: Shifts 
     Types of Patrol 
Research on Patrol Practices 
     Rapid Response to Incidents 
     Two Officers versus One 
     Foot Patrol 
     Preventative Patrol 
     Targeted Patrol Practices 
Special Patrols 
     Traffic Function 
Public Perceptions of Police Performance 

9 Identifying Problems
Gathering Information 
     Sources of Information 
Intelligence-Led Policing 
Crime Analysis 
     Levels of Analysis 
     Information Dissemination 
     The Analytic Process 
     Types of Analysis 
Predictive Policing 
Compstat 
     The Components 
     The Process 
     Is it Effective? 
     Problems with Compstat 
Real time Crime Centers 
Regional Intelligence Centers 

10 Responding to Problems
Organizational Methods 
Community-Oriented Policing 
     Problem-Oriented Policing 
Broken Windows Policing 
Operational Methods 
     Place-Based Strategies 
     Offender-Based Strategies 
Evidence-Based Policing 
     A Summary of The Evidence on Policing Practices 
     Effectiveness and Equity 

11 Policing Special Populations
Policing Persons Experiencing Homelessness 
     Police Concerns 
Policing Persons with Mental Illness 
     Police Response 
Policing Juveniles 
Policing Gangs 
     Gang Prevalence 
     Demographics of Gang Members 
     Risk Factors for Gang Membership 
     Gang Crime 
     Police Response to Gang Crime 

12 Investigations and Interrogations 
History of Investigations 
     1850s–1920s: The Secretive Rogue 
     1890s–1950s: The Inquisitor 
     1950s–Present: The Highly Skilled Professional 
The Detective Unit 
The Investigative Process 
     Preliminary Investigation 
     Secondary Investigation 
     How Successful are Investigators? 
Evidence—The Key to Solving Crimes 
     Types of Evidence
     Legal Rules Governing Evidence 
     Science—Evaluating the Evidence 
Interviews And Interrogations 
     Accusatory Approach 
     Information-Gathering Approach 
     Typical Suspect Interrogations in the US 
     Legal Rules Governing Police Questioning 
     Research on Effective Interrogations 
     The Problem of False Confessions 
     Practices that Lead to False Confessions 
     Practices that Reduce False Confessions 
Law Enforcement’s Commitment to Reduce Wrongful Convictions 

Part 4 AINTAINING PUBLIC TRUST

13 Police Behavior 
Overview 
Effect of Police Behavior on Citizen Cooperation 
     Key Concepts: Legitimacy and Procedural Justice 
     Biased Policing 
Police Deviance 
     Varieties pf Police Deviance 
Police Integrity 
     Explaining Police Deviance 
Police Coercion and the Use of Force 
     Understanding Why the Police use Force 
     The Reasonableness of Force 
     Nature and Extent of Use of Force 
     Title 42 United States Code, Section 14142: Data on use of Excessive Force

14 Legitimacy And Accountability In A Democratic Society
Overview 
A Framework For Understanding Accountability 
Complaining about the Police 
     Research on Complaint Case Processing 
Internal Mechanisms 
     Internal Investigations 
     Disciplinary Action 
External Mechanisms 
     Citizen Oversight 
     Officer Decertification 
     Federal Intervention 
Trying to Nudge Things Forward 

15 Policing In The Future
Democratic Policing—The Demand tor Transparency and Accountability 
Intelligence-Led Policing—Incorporating ILP Throughout the Agency 
Partnerships: New and Re-Envisioned 
Technology and Community Policing: Changing
the Co-Production of Crime Control 
Technology: Improving Communication for First Responders 
Technology and Investigations: Spotlight on Evidence
Collection and Analysis 
Technology: New Tools for Patrol Officers and Supervisors 
     The Promise and Challenge of Video Cameras 
Social and Population Trends 

Glossary
Index

Chapter 6