Skills for Thoughtful Thought
Edition: 1
Copyright: 2023
Edition: 1
Copyright: 2023
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This is a book about how to think well. Like many other valuable things, thinking—if it is to be done well—must be thought about and trained. You must think about thinking to do it well; you must practice good intellectual habits.
Skills For Thoughtful Thought not only teaches about intellectual skills, but it helps you practice these skills. It asks questions where readers must define terms appropriately, compare and contrast different beliefs, manipulate statements while preserving their truth value, and make valid rudimentary inferences. Readers are prompted to defend their positions and to consider how to express their beliefs well in the context of other people and our society. The book encourages its readers to be intellectually virtuous in a more systematic way in the future, avoiding unfair biases and informal fallacies, while having the ultimate goal of seeking the Truth.
Prologue
Acknowledgements
Author Bio
SOME EPISTEMIC VIRTUES, HABITS, AND LIMITATIONS
Chapter 1: The Value and Skills of Critical Thinking
1.1 Introduction
1.2 Terms to Know
1.3 Skills
1.3.1 Why We Must Train to Think Critically
Regular Thinking
Critical Thinking
Eight Critical Thinking Skills
1.3.2 Subjectivity, Objectivity, and Personal Standards
Apply 1.3a
Apply 1.3b
1.4 Foundational Principles
1.4.1 The Law of Excluded Middle
1.4.2 The Law of Identity
1.4.3 The Law of Noncontradiction
1.5 Facts, Reasoned Judgments, and Opinions
Apply 1.5
Chapter 2: Virtues, Attitudes, and Habits of Critical Thinkers
2.1 Introduction
2.2 Terms to Know
2.3 What Virtues Are
2.3.1 The Context of Human Virtues
2.3.2 Two Categories of Virtue
2.3.2.a Moral Virtue
2.3.2.b Intellectual Virtue
2.4 Specific Intellectual Virtues
2.4.1 Motivator Virtues
Curiosity
Inquisitiveness
Apply 2.4a
2.4.2 Inquiring Well and Forming Beliefs
Truth-Seeking
Apply 2.4b
Intellectual Autonomy
Apply 2.4c
Intellectual Courage
Apply 2.4d
Attentiveness
Apply 2.4e
Intellectual Carefulness
Apply 2.4f
Intellectual Thoroughness
Apply 2.4g
Open-Mindedness
Apply 2.4h
Intellectual Caution
Apply 2.4i
Creativity
Apply 2.4j
2.4.3 Handling Challenges to One’s Beliefs
Intellectual Humility
Apply 2.4k
2.5 A Word about Acquiring the Virtues
Apply 2.5a
Chapter 3: Resisting Mental Limits—Idols and Biases
3.1 Introduction
3.2 Terms to Know
3.3 What Are Idols of the Mind?
Apply 3.3
3.4 What Are Cognitive Biases?
3.5 Twenty Cognitive Biases
3.5.1 Seeing Yourself Wrongly
1. The Dunning-Kruger Effect
2. Egocentric Thinking
3. Spotlight Effect
4. Forer (or Barnum) Effect
3.5.2 Yourself in the Context of Others
5. Groupthink
6. Bystander Effect
7. In-Group Bias
8. Reactance
3.5.3 Information
9. Framing Effect
10. Anchoring Bias
11. Confirmation Bias
12. Backfire Effect
13. Availability Heuristic
14. Gambler’s Fallacy
Apply 3.5a
3.5.4 Actions
15. Sunk Cost
16. Curse of Knowledge
17. Drone Mentality
3.5.5 View of Situations
18. Declinism
19. Negativity Bias
20. Optimism (Invulnerability) Bias
Apply 3.5b
SAYING THINGS WELL
Chapter 4: Words
4.1 Introduction
4.2 Terms to Know
4.3 Words and Classifications
Apply 4.3
4.4 Defining Words Well
4.4.1 Denotative Definition Techniques
Capturing Usage: Dictionary (Lexical) Definitions
Gesturing (Ostensive) Definitions
Listing (Enumerative or Subclasses) Definitions
4.4.2 Connotative Definition Techniques
Operational Definitions
Definitions by Synonyms
Etymological Definitions
Genus and Specific Difference
Apply 4.4.2
4.4.3 Purposes of Genus and Difference Definitions
Definitions for Stipulating
Definitions for Precision
Definitions for Removing Ambiguity
Definitions for Supporting a Theory
Definitions for Persuading
Apply 4.4.1–4.4.3
4.4.4 Principles for Clear Definitions
Apply 4.4.4
4.5 Practical Principles for Words in Conversation
4.5.1 Avoid Slang
4.5.2 Use Colloquialisms in the Right Context
4.5.3 Avoid Jargon and Over-Technical Language unless Speaking with Specialists
4.5.4 Clarify Acronyms when Necessary
4.5.5 Avoid Humptydumptying
4.5.6 Avoid Cursing but Use Manners
4.5.7 Have Clarity in Meaning and Speech
4.5.8 Be Articulate and Be Heard
4.6 Conclusion
Chapter 5: Statements
5.1 Introduction
5.2 Terms to Know
5.3 Propositions and Statements
Apply 5.3
5.4 Recognizing Statements
Apply 5.4
5.5 Two Kinds of Statements
5.5.1 Self-Supporting Statements
Definition
Logic
Self-Reports
5.5.2 Supported Statements
Experience and Observation
Authority
Logical Inference
Apply 5.5
5.6 Comparing Statements
5.6.1 Logical Equivalence
5.6.2 Consistency
5.6.3 Implication
5.6.4 Independence
Apply 5.6
5.7 Practical Tips about Statements and Disagreements
5.7.1 Consistency within Our Beliefs
5.7.2 Consistency in Thought and Action
Apply 5.7.1–2
5.7.3 Disagreements between Statements or with Others
Real Disagreement
Apparent Disagreement
Definitional Disagreement
Empirical Disagreement
Presuppositional Disagreement
Apply 5.7.3
5.7.4 Being Polite and Tactful
5.7.5 A Final Story about Kindness
Apply 5.7.4
FINDING THE TRUTH
Chapter 6: Classifying Reasoning: Deductive and Inductive Arguments
6.1 Introduction: Reasoning in Arguments and the Dialectical Process
6.2 Terms to Know
6.3 The Proper Response to an Argument
Apply 6.3
6.4 A Basic Definition of “Argument”
6.5 Things That Are Not Arguments
6.5.1 Expository passage
6.5.2 Explanations
6.5.3 Illustrations and Examples
6.5.4 Statement of Opinion or Belief
6.5.5 Conditional Statements
Necessary and Sufficient Conditions
Apply 6.5
6.6 A Note on the Format of Arguments
6.7 Identifying Induction and Deduction
6.7.1 What Deduction Is
Validity
Types of Arguments That Are Usually Deductive
6.7.2 What Induction Is
Types of Arguments That Are Usually Inductive
Apply 6
Chapter 7: Truth
7.1 Introduction
7.2 Terms to Know
7.3 Epistemic Principles
7.3.1 Ways of Knowing a Proposition
7.3.2 Some Sources of Knowledge
7.3.3 Pausing Before Believing
Apply 7.3
7.4 When Premises Should Be Questioned or Rejected
7.5 Finding the Conclusion
7.5.1 Indicator Words
7.5.2 Strategy for Locating the Conclusion
Apply 7.5
7.6 Induction
7.6.1 Generalizations
Apply 7.6.1
7.6.2 Difference and Causality
Apply 7.6.2
TOOLS FOR THINKING WELL
Chapter 8: Symbolic Shorthand for Statements and Arguments
8.1 Introduction
8.2 Terms to Know
8.3 Simple and Compound Statements and Connectors
8.3.1 “And” and “Not”
8.3.2 “Or” and “If . . .then. . .”
8.3.3 “Lifehacks” for Symbolizing
8.3.4 Parenthesis
8.4 Common Symbolizations
Apply 8.3-8.4
8.5 The Main Connective
Apply 8.5
8.6 Abstracting a Logical Form from Statement
Apply 8.6
8.7 Logically Equivalent Complex Statements: DeMorgan and Transposition
8.7.1 DeMorgan’s Rule
8.7.2 Transposition
Apply 8.7
8.8 Logical Inferences
8.8.1 Modus Ponens (MP)/Affirming the Antecedent (AA)
Apply 8.8.1
8.8.2 Modus Tollens (MT)/ Denying the Consequent (DC)
Apply 8.8.2
8.8.3 Hypothetical Syllogism (HS)
Apply 8.8.3
8.9 Summary
Chapter 9: Another Strategy for Detecting Invalidity—Truth Tables
9.1 Introduction
9.2 Terms to Know
9.3 Fundamental of Truth Tables
9.3.1 Constructing Truth Possibilities for a Long Table
9.3.2 Truth-Values and Logical Operators
Negation (~)
Conjunction (&)
Disjunction (v)
Conditional (→)
Summary of Truth-Values for Logical Rules
Apply 9.3
9.4 Truth Tables for Arguments
9.4.1 Initial “Set-Up” of Truth Tables for Argument
9.4.2 How to Construct a Long Truth Table
9.4.3 How to Construct a Short Truth Table
Short Truth Table with One Line
Short Truth Table with Multiple Lines
Apply 9.4
9.5 Summary
Chapter 10: Categories, Opposition, and Inferences
10.1 Introduction
10.2 Terms to Know
10.3 Standard Form
10.3.1 Translating Non-Standard Quantifiers
Apply 10.3
10.4 Compatibility of Oppositional Statements
10.4.1 Statement Letters
10.4.2 The Contrary Relation (A and E)
10.4.3 Subalternation (A and I; E and O)
10.4.4 A Helpful Picture
10.4.5 Contradictions (A and O; E and I)
10.4.6 The Subcontrary Relation (I and O)
10.4.7 The Oppositional Rules Summarized
Apply 10.4
10.5 Immediate Inferences through Logical Equations
10.5.1 Conversion (E and I)
10.5.2 Contraposition (A and O)
10.5.3 Obversion (All Statements)
Apply 10.5
10.6 Summary
Chapter 11: Informal Fallacies to Avoid
11.1 Introduction
11.2 Terms to Know
11.3 List of Fallacies
11.3.1 Subjectivism
Apply 11.a
11.3.2 False Dichotomy
Interjection #1 about Intellectual Charity
11.3.3 Genetic Fallacy
11.3.4 Complex Question
11.3.5 Begging the Question/Circular Reasoning
11.3.6 Accident
11.3.7 Composition (Part to Whole)
11.3.8 Division (Whole to Part)
Interjection #2 about Truth and Intellectual Charity
11.3.9 Straw Man Fallacy
11.3.10 Missing the Point
11.3.11 Red Herring
11.3.12 Ad Hominem (Against the Person)
11.3.13 Appeal to Pity
11.3.14 Appeal to Unqualified Authority
11.3.15 False Cause
11.3.16 Weak Analogy
11.3.17 Hasty Generalization
11.3.18 Slippery Slope
11.3.19 Appeal to Ignorance
11.3.20 Accent
11.3.21 Equivocation
11.3.22 Amphiboly
Apply 11.b
Chapter 12: Postlude
Bibliography for Skills for Thoughtful Thought
Appendix: Answer Key
Dr. Kimberly Goard holds a Ph.D. in Philosophy from the University of Kentucky, an M.A. in Humanities from the University of Louisville, a B.S. in Philosophy and Religious Studies from Radford University, and a B.A. in Economics, concentrating in Health Care Administration, from Roanoke College. She is the author of Unconditional Forgivingness. Goard is an Associate Professor of Philosophy, department chairperson, and the Chorus director for Richmond Community College in North Carolina. She also teaches a master’s level class in the Classical Pedagogy of Philosophy for Classical Conversations. A native of Virginia, she now resides in Pinehurst, NC.