The Heavens & The Earth: Excursions in Earth and Space Science

CHAPTER 1 The Earth Is the LORD’s 
1.1 An Interdisciplinary Science 
1.2 Models of Earth and Its History 
1.3 Doing Good Science 
1.4 The Earth: Components and Context 
       1.4.1 Atmosphere 
       1.4.2 Hydrosphere 
       1.4.3 Geosphere 
       1.4.4 Biosphere 
1.5 Earth Science: Systems and Synthesis 
1.6 Dominion, Stewardship, and the Environment 

CHAPTER 2 Minerals 
2.1 Introduction 
2.2 What Exactly Is a Mineral? 
2.3 Atoms and Bonding: Foundations of Minerals 
       2.3.1 Elements, Atoms, and Electrons 
       2.3.2 Types of Bonds 
       2.3.3 The Making of Mineral Crystals 
2.4 Determining Mineral Identities 
       2.4.1 Optical Properties 
       2.4.2 Shape Properties 
       2.4.3 Mass-Related Properties 
       2.4.4 Mechanical Properties 
       2.4.5 Other Properties 
2.5 Classifying Minerals into Groups 
       2.5.1 Silicate Minerals 
       2.5.2 Non-silicate Minerals 
2.6 Mineral Uses: Practical Players to Precious Gems 

CHAPTER 3 The Earth’s Rocks 
3.1 Introduction 
3.2 The Rock Cycle 
3.3 Igneous Rocks 
       3.3.1 Classification and Identification of Igneous Rocks 
       3.3.2 The Cooling and Crystallization of Igneous Rocks 
       3.3.3 Useful Types of Igneous Rocks 
3.4 Sedimentary Rocks 
       3.4.1 The Classification of Sedimentary Rocks 
       3.4.2 Sedimentary Structures 
       3.4.3 Important Sedimentary Rocks 
3.5 Metamorphic Rocks 
       3.5.1 The Classification of Metamorphic Rocks 
       3.5.2 Useful Metamorphic Rocks 

CHAPTER 4 Plate Tectonics 
4.1 Early Clues 
4.2 Almost There: Continental Drift 
       4.2.1 Wegener’s Evidence for Continental Drift 
       4.2.2 Wegener’s Problem of Mechanism
4.3 The Plate Tectonics Revolution 
       4.3.1 Magnetism and the Rock Record 
       4.3.2 Ocean Features and Composition 
       4.3.3 Putting It All Together 
4.4 A Closer Look at Plate Boundaries 
4.5 Hot Spots and Plate Rates 
4.6 Noah’s Flood: Where Scripture Meets Geology 
       4.6.1 Scriptural Framework 
       4.6.2 Catastrophic Plate Tectonics

CHAPTER 5 The Restless Earth 
5.1 Introduction 
5.2 Does Rock Bend or Break? 
       5.2.1 Types of Folds 
       5.2.2 Types of Faults 
5.3 Earthquakes 
       5.3.1 Earthquake Generation 
       5.3.2 Seismic Waves 
       5.3.3 Measurement of Earthquakes 
       5.3.4 Types of Earthquake Damage
5.4 The Interior of the Earth 
5.5 Volcanoes 
       5.5.1 Volcanic Materials 
       5.5.2 Volcanic Dangers 
       5.5.3 Types of Volcanoes 
       5.5.4 Caldera Formation 
       5.5.5 Lava Floods 
5.6 Case Study: Mt. St. Helens 

CHAPTER 6 Reading the Record of the Rocks 
6.1 A History of Earth History 
6.2 Rules for Reading Rocks 
6.3 Fossils 
6.4 Correlation and the Geologic Column 
6.5 Rocks as Clocks 
       6.5.1 Types of Radioactive Decay 
       6.5.2 Decay Rates and Half-Lives
6.6 Young-Earth Studies Challenge Old-Earth Dates 

CHAPTER 7 Earth’s Geologic History: Two Contrasting Views 
7.1 A Unique History 
7.2 Naturalistic Evolutionary View of Earth History 
       7.2.1 Early Planet Formation Through the Proterozoic 
       7.2.2 The Paleozoic Era 
       7.2.3 The Mesozoic Era 
       7.2.4 The Cenozoic Era 
7.3 Young-Earth Creation Views of Earth History 
       7.3.1 Creation Week 
       7.3.2 From the Fall to Noah 
       7.3.3 Noah’s Flood 
       7.3.4 The Post-Flood to Today 
7.4 Challenges and Opportunities 

CHAPTER 8 Soils, Weathering and Mass Wasting 
8.1 Introduction 
8.2 Soil 
8.3 Weathering and Erosional Processes 
       8.3.1 Chemical Weathering 
       8.3.2 Mechanical Weathering Processes 
       8.3.3 Special Types of Weathering
8.4 Mass Wasting 
       8.4.1 Falls 
       8.4.2 Slides 
       8.4.3 Slow Flows 
       8.4.4 Rapid Flows 
       8.4.5 Mediation of Mass Movements
8.5 Mass Wasting Following Noah’s Flood 

CHAPTER 9 Streams and Groundwater 
9.1 Introduction 
9.2 The Hydrologic Cycle 
9.3 The Work of Streams 
       9.3.1 Stream Erosion 
       9.3.2 Stream Transportation 
       9.3.3 Stream Deposition 
9.4 Floods 
9.5 Types of Streams 
9.6 The Role of Groundwater in the Hydrologic Cycle 
       9.6.1 The Water Table 
       9.6.2 Wells and Springs 
9.7 Groundwater Use and Problems 
       9.7.1 Home Uses 
       9.7.2 Large-Scale Use 
9.8 Caves and Karst Features 
9.9 Hot Groundwater 

CHAPTER 10 Glaciers and Deserts 
10.1 Introduction 
10.2 Glaciers and the Ice Age 
       10.2.1 What Is a Glacier? 
       10.2.2 What Caused the Ice Age? 
       10.2.3 Glacial Movement 
       10.2.4 Landforms Made by Continental Glaciation 
       10.2.5 Landforms Made by Alpine Glaciation
10.3 Deserts 
       10.3.1 Why Do Deserts Form? 
       10.3.2 Desert Landforms 
       10.3.3 Sand Dunes 
10.4 Sand Dunes? 

CHAPTER 11 Earth Resources: Provisions from God’s Creation 
11.1 Caretakers of Creation 
11.2 Resource Use in the Modern World 
11.3 Energy Resources: Fossil Fuels 
       11.3.1 Coal 
       11.3.2 Petroleum 
       11.3.3 Natural Gas 
11.4 Energy Resources: Nuclear Power 
11.5 Energy Resources: Renewables 
       11.5.1 Solar 
       11.5.2 Wind 
       11.5.3 Geothermal Energy 
       11.5.4 Hydroelectricity 
       11.5.5 Biomass and Biofuels 
11.6 Looking Forward: Resources and Climate 
       11.6.1 Resources 
       11.6.2 Climate 

CHAPTER 12 Oceans and Coastal Systems 
12.1 Circulation in the World Ocean 
       12.1.1 Surface Currents 
       12.1.2 Thermohaline Circulation 
       12.1.3 Tidal Currents 
12.2 Tides 
       12.2.1 Lunar and Solar Tides 
       12.2.2 Tidal Patterns 
12.3 Waves: Formation and Travel 
       12.3.1 The Making of a Wave 
       12.3.2 Wave Interactions at the Shore 
12.4 Coastal Areas and Landforms 
       12.4.1 The Shore Region 
       12.4.2 Erosional and Depositional Landforms 
       12.4.3 Subemergent and Emergent Coastlines 
12.5 People, the Coast, and Rising Waters 
       12.5.1 Living with a River of Sand 
       12.5.2 Rising Seas and Sinking Land 

CHAPTER 13 Earth’s Atmosphere 
13.1 Weather and Climate 
13.2 The Atmosphere 
       13.2.1 Atmosphere’s Composition 
       13.2.2 Trace Gases and Pollutants 
       13.2.3 Origin of the Atmosphere 
       13.2.4 Density and Pressure 
       13.2.5 Layers of the Atmosphere
13.3 Temperature and Heating 
       13.3.1 Types of Heating 
       13.3.2 Heat: Transport of Energy 
       13.4 The Sun and the Atmosphere 
       13.4.1 Daily Cycle 
       13.4.2 The Effect of Latitude 
       13.4.3 Seasons 
       13.4.4 Albedo 
13.5 Energy Balance 
13.6 Changing Climate 
       13.6.1 Feedback Mechanisms 
       13.6.2 The Atmospheric Effect 
       13.6.3 Greenhouse Gases 
       13.6.4 Global Warming 
13.7 Climate Zones 
       13.7.1 Köppen Climate Classification 
       13.7.2 Climate Sensitivity 

CHAPTER 14 Phenomena and Processes of the Atmosphere 
14.1 Water Vapor and Humidity 
       14.1.1 Evaporation 
       14.1.2 Humidity 
       14.1.3 Effects of Humidity 
14.2 Rising Air 
       14.2.1 Lapse Rates 
       14.2.2 Atmospheric Stability 
14.2.3 Forced Instability 
14.3 Clouds 
       14.3.1 Fog 
       14.3.2 Types of Clouds 
14.4 Colors of the Atmosphere 
14.5 Precipitation 
       14.5.1 Formation of Precipitation 
       14.5.2 Measuring Precipitation
14.6 Winds 
       14.6.1 Thermal Circulation 
       14.6.2 Forces Affecting Winds 
       14.6.3 Large Scale Winds 

CHAPTER 15 Weather Patterns and Forecasting 
15.1 Micrometeorology 
15.2 Global Circulation 
       15.2.1 Circulation Cells 
       15.2.2 Global Pressure and Wind Patterns 
       15.2.3 El Niño 
15.3 Air Masses 
15.4 Fronts 
       15.4.1 Cold Front
       15.4.2 Warm Front 
       15.4.3 Occluded Front 
15.5 Thunderstorms 
       15.5.1 Thunderstorm Development 
       15.5.2 Lightning 
15.6 Tornadoes 
       15.6.1 Tornado Formation 
       15.6.2 Tornado Damage 
       15.6.3 Tornado Watches and Warnings 
15.7 Hurricanes 
       15.7.1 Hurricane Formation 
       15.7.2 Hurricane Damage 
       15.7.3 Hurricane Prediction 
15.8 Weather Forecasting 
       15.8.1 Forecasting History 
       15.8.2 Forecasting Techniques
       15.8.3 Numerical Forecasts 
       15.8.4 Satellite Meteorology 

CHAPTER 16 Our Solar System 
16.1 Earth as a Planet 
16.2 A Survey of the Solar System 
16.3 The Moon 
16.4 Eclipses 
16.5 Lunar Features 
16.6 Two Types of Planets 
16.7 What About Pluto? 
16.8 Comets
16.9 Minor Planets
16.10 Meteors 
16.11 The Origin of the Solar System 
16.12 Exoplanets 

CHAPTER 17 Beyond Us: Outside Our Solar System 
17.1 The Sun 
17.2 Constellations 
17.3 Stars 
17.4 Measuring Stars 
17.5 Star Clusters 
17.6 Hertzsprung-Russell Diagram 
17.7 Theories of Stellar Evolution 
17.8 Neutron Stars 
17.9 Black Holes 

CHAPTER 18 Models of Cosmic Origin 
18.1 The Milky Way 
18.2 Other Galaxies 
18.3 Distances to Galaxies 
18.4 Active Galaxies 
18.5 Cosmology: The Expansion of the Universe 
18.6 Cosmogony: The Big Bang 
18.7 Findings of the James Webb Space Telescope 
18.8 The Light Travel Time Problem 

Glossary 
Index